Bookkeeping Introdution

8/11/2019 Bookkeeping Introdution

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Bookkeeping introdutionBookkeeping, inbusiness,is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process

ofaccounting.[1]

Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts and payments by an individual or

organization. The accountant creates reports from the recorded financial transactions recorded by the

bookkeeper and files forms with government agencies. There are some common methods ofbookkeeping such as thesingle-entry bookkeeping systemand thedouble-entry bookkeeping system.But

while these systems may be seen as "real" bookkeeping, any process that involves the recording of

financial transactions is a bookkeeping process.

Bookkeeping is usually performed by a bookkeeper. A bookkeeper(or book-keeper), also known as an

accounting clerk or accounting technician, is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions

of an organization. A bookkeeper is usually responsible for writing the "daybooks". The daybooks consist

of purchases, sales, receipts, and payments. The bookkeeper is responsible for ensuring all transactions

are recorded in the correct day book, suppliers ledger, customer ledger andgeneral ledger.

The bookkeeper brings the books to thetrial balancestage. An accountant may prepare theincome

statementandbalance sheetusing the trial balance and ledgers prepared by the bookkeeper.

Purchasing powerPurchasing power(sometimes retroactively called adjusted for inflation) is the number of goods or

services that can be purchased with a unit ofcurrency.For example, if one had taken one unit of currency

to a store in the 1950s, it is probable that it would have been possible to buy a greater number of items

than would today, indicating that one would have had a greater purchasing power in the

1950s.Currencycan be either acommodity money,likegoldorsilver,orfiat currency,or free-floating

market-valued currency likeUS dollars.AsAdam Smithnoted, having money gives one the ability to

"command" others'labor,so purchasing power to some extent is power over other people, to the extent

that they are willing to trade their labor or goods formoneyorcurrency.

If one's monetary income stays the same, but theprice levelincreases, the purchasing power of that

income falls.Inflationdoes not alwaysimply falling purchasing power of one's money income since it may

rise faster than the price level. A higherreal incomemeans a higher purchasing power since real income

refers to the income adjusted for inflation.

For aprice index,its value in the base year is usually normalized to a value of 100. The purchasing power

of a unit of currency, say a dollar, in a given year, expressed in dollars of the base year, is 100/ P,

where Pis the price index in that year. So, by definition the purchasing power of a dollar decreases as the

price level rises. The purchasing power in today's money of an amount Cof money, tyears into thefuture, can be computed with the formula for thepresent value:

where in this case iis an assumed future annualinflation rate.
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Details[edit]

Purchasing managers/directors, and procurement managers/directors guide the

organizationsacquisitionprocedures and standards. Most organizations use a three-way check as the

foundation of their purchasing programs. This involves three departments in the organization completing

separate parts of the acquisition process. The three departments do not all report to the same seniormanager, to prevent unethical practices and lend credibility to the process. These departments can be

purchasing, receiving and accounts payable; or engineering, purchasing and accounts payable; or a plant

manager, purchasing and accounts payable. Combinations can vary significantly, but a purchasing

department and accounts payable are usually two of the three departments involved.

When the receiving department is not involved, it is typically called a two-way check or two-way purchase

order. In this situation, the purchasing department issues the purchase orderreceiptnot required. When

an invoice arrives against the order, the accounts payable department will then go directly to the

requestor of the purchase order to verify that the goods or services were received. This is typically what is

done for goods and services that will bypass the receiving department. A few examples are software

delivered electronically, NRE work (non-reoccurring engineering services), consulting hours, etc.Historically, the purchasing department issued purchase orders for supplies, services, equipment, and

raw materials. Then, in an effort to decrease the administrative costs associated with the repetitive

ordering of basic consumable items, "blanket" or "master" agreements were put into place. These types of

agreements typically have a longer duration and increased scope to maximize the quantities of scale

concept. When additional supplies were required, a simple release would be issued to the supplier to

provide the goods or services.

Another method of decreasing administrative costs associated with repetitive contracts for common

material, is the use of company credit cards, also known as "Purchasing Cards" or simply "P-Cards". P-

card programs vary, but all of them have internal checks and audits to ensure appropriate use.

Purchasing managers realized once contracts for the low dollar value consumables are in place,procurement can take a smaller role in the operation and use of the contracts. There is still oversight in

the forms of audits and monthly statement reviews, but most of their time is now available to negotiate

major purchases and setting up of other long term contracts. These contracts are typically renewable

annually.

This trend away from the daily procurement function (tactical purchasing) resulted in several changes in

the industry. The first was the reduction of personnel. Purchasing departments were now smaller. There

was no need for the army of clerks processing orders for individual parts as in the past. Another change

was the focus on negotiating contracts and procurement of large capital equipment. Both of these

functions permitted purchasing departments to make the biggestfinancialcontribution to the organization.

A new terms and job title emergedStrategic sourcingand Sourcing Managers. These professionals notonly focused on the bidding process and negotiating with suppliers, but the entire supply function. In

these roles they were able to add value and maximize savings for organizations. This value was

manifested in lower inventories, less personnel, and getting the end product to the organizations

consumer quicker. Purchasing managers success in these roles resulted in new assignments outside to

the traditional purchasing functionlogistics, materials management, distribution, and warehousing. More

and more purchasing managers were becoming Supply Chain Managers handling additional functions of

their organizations operation. Purchasing managers were not the only ones to become Supply Chain
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Managers. Logistic managers, material managers, distribution managers, etc. all rose the broader

function and some had responsibility for the purchasing functions now.

Inaccounting,purchases is the amount of goods a company bought throughout this year. It also refers to

information as to the kind, quality, quantity, and cost of goods bought that should be maintained. They are

added toinventory.Purchases are offset byPurchase DiscountsandPurchase Returns and Allowances.

When it should be added depends on theFree On Board(FOB) policy of the trade. For the purchaser,

this new inventory is added on shipment if the policy was FOB shipping point, and the seller remove this

item from its inventory. On the other hand, the purchaser added this inventory on receipt if the policy was

FOB destination, and the seller remove this item from its inventory when it was delivered.

Goods bought for the purpose other than direct selling, such as forResearch and Development,are

added to inventory and allocated to Research and Development expenseas they are used. On a side

note, equipments bought for Research and Development are not added to inventory, but

arecapitalizedasassets.

Purchase method

Balance sheetAlso called the statement of financial condition, it is a summary of acompany'sassets,liabilities,andowners'equity.

GoodwillExcess of purchase priceover fairmarket valueofnet assetsacquired under thepurchase methodof

accounting.

Market value

(1) The price at which asecurityistradingand could presumably bepurchasedor sold. (2)Whatinvestorsbelieve afirmis worth; calculated by multiplying the number of sharesoutstandingby thecurrentmarket priceof a firm'sshares.

Market ValueA subjective estimate of what a willingbuyerwouldpaya willingsellerfor a givenasset,assuming bothhave a reasonable knowledge of the asset's worth. Market value is important in both law and accounting.In the former, it is often used in assessing damages as the result of a lawsuit. In the latter, determining

the market value of an asset (e.g. afterdepreciation)is important to determining the amount of tax

owedon it.Value investorslook for companies with market values below theirbook values,believing

these companies to beundervalued.

Farlex Financial Dictionary. 2012 Farlex, Inc. All Rights Reserved

market value1. The price at which a security currently can be sold.2. Seemarket capitalization.

Wall StreetWords: An A to Z Guide to InvestmentTerms for Today's Investor by David L. Scott. Copyright 2003 by Houghton Mifflin

Company. Published byHoughton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved.
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Market value.The market value of a stock or bond is the current price at which that security is trading.

In a more general sense, if an item has not been priced for sale, its fair market valueis the amount a

buyer and seller agree upon. That's assuming that both know what the item is worth and neither is beingforced to complete the transaction.

Dictionary of Financial Terms. Copyright 2008Lightbulb Press, Inc.All Rights Reserved.

market value

There are many different definitions of market value, depending on the organization finding it necessaryto write a definition. Most definitions include the following: the price that would be paid by a motivated

buyer to a motivated sellerafter a property's exposure to a marketplace of equally capable buyers,eachwith full information about the property and the market place and neither operating under any sort ofoutside influences.

The Complete Real Estate Encyclopedia by Denise L. Evans, JD & O. William Evans, JD. Copyright 2007 by The McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc.

Market Value

What Does Market ValueMean?

(1) The current price at which investors buy or sell a share of common stock or a bond at a specific time.Also known as market price.

(2) The market capitalization plus the market value of debt. Sometimes referred to as total market value.

Investopedia explains Market Value

(1) In the context of securities, market value is often different from book value because the market value

reflects future expectations. Most investors who pick stocksby using fundamental analysis look at a

company's market value and then determine whether the market value is adequate or is undervalued incomparison to its book value, net assets, or another measure.

Related Terms:Book ValueFace ValueFair ValueIntrinsic ValueMarket Capitalization

Methodology
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Methodologyis the systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study, or the

theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge. It,

typically, encompasses concepts such as paradigm, theoretical model, phases and quantitative or

qualitative techniques.[1]

A Methodology does not set out to provide solutions but offers the theoretical underpinning for

understanding which method, set of methods or so called best practices can be applied to a specific

case.

It has been defined also as follows:

1. "theanalysisof the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline";[2]

2. "the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline";[2]

3. "the study or description of methods".[3]

Contents

[show]

Relation to methods and theories[edit]

Generally speaking, methodologydoes not describe specific methods, even though much attention is

given to the nature and kinds of processes to be followed in a particular procedure or in attaining an

objective. When proper to a study of methodology, such processes constitute a constructive generic

framework; thus they may be broken down in sub-processes, combined, or their sequence changed .[4]

Methodology as a buzzword[edit]

In recent years, the word methodologyhas become a "pretentious substitute for the

word method".[5]

There are distinctions between methodology and methods; methodology is the research

strategy that outlines the way one goes about undertaking a research project, whereas methods identify

means or modes of data collection.[6]

Many recent uses of the word methodologymistakenly treat it a

synonym for methodor body of methods. Doing this shifts it away from its trueepistemologicalmeaning

and reduces it to being the procedure itself, the set of tools or the instruments that should have been its

outcome. A methodology is the design process for carrying out research or the development of a

procedure and is not in itself an instrument for doing those things. Using it as a synonym

for methodor set of methods, leads to misinterpretation and undermines the proper analysis that should

go into designing research. Generally for any research study both primary and secondary research are

done which facilitates in the better understanding of the entire study. Primary research helps garner

relevant and adequate data of the current state of affairs pertaining to any subject and provides an insight

into the exact nature of the problem. Owing to the broad and complex nature of this research topic which

would require delving into many aspects of the study including an ethnographic study which would in turn

include a longitudinal time horizon which cannot be possibly encompassed within this research as it goes

".[5]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-Vacca1-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-Vacca1-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-Vacca1-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-TheFreeDictionary-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-Vacca1-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-merrian-webster-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_note-1


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Relation to paradigm and algorithm[edit]

In theoretical work, the development ofparadigms[7]

satisfies most or all of the criteria for methodology. A

paradigm, like an algorithm, is a constructive framework, meaning that the so-called construction is a

logical, rather than a physical, array of connected elements.

See also[edit]

Art methodology

References[edit]

1. Jump up^Irny, S.I. and Rose, A.A. (2005) Designing a Strategic Information Systems Planning

Methodology for Malaysian Institutes of Higher Learning (isp- ipta), Issues in Information System, Volume

VI, No. 1, 2005.

2. ^Jump up to:abMethodology Usage Notes,entry atMerriamWebster

3. Jump up^Baskerville, R. (1991). "Risk Analysis as a Source of Professional Knowledge". Computers &

Security10(8): 749764.

4. Jump up^Katsicas, Sokratis K. (2009,20090). "Chapter 35". In Vacca, John. Computer and Information

Security Handbook. Morgan Kaufmann Publications. Elsevier Inc. p. 605.ISBN978-0-12-374354-1.

5. ^Jump up to:abmisuse of the word Methodology in technical contexts

6. Jump up^Howell, K. E. (2013) Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology. London: Sage Publications

7. Jump up^See, for example,Thomas Kuhn,The Structure of Scientific Revolutions(University of Chicago,

1970, 2nd ed.)

Further reading[edit]

Berg, Bruce L., 2009, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. Seventh Edition. Boston

MA: Pearson Education Inc.

Creswell, J. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions.

Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.

Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Franklin, M.I. (2012).Understanding Research: Coping with the Quantitative-Qualitative Divide.

London and New York: Routledge.

Guba, E. and Lincoln, Y. (1989). Fourth Generation Evaluation. Newbury Park, California: Sage

Publications.

Herrman, C. S. (2009). Fundamentals of Methodology, a series of papers On theSocial Sciences

Research Network(SSRN),online.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-1http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/methodologyhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/methodologyhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-Vacca1_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-Vacca1_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374354-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374354-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374354-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-1http://www.thefreedictionary.com/methodologyhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/methodologyhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=6http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415490801/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415490801/http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415490801/http://www.ssrn.com/author=510356http://www.ssrn.com/author=510356http://www.ssrn.com/author=510356http://www.ssrn.com/author=510356http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415490801/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kuhnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-6http://www.thefreedictionary.com/methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-TheFreeDictionary_5-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374354-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-Vacca1_4-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster%27s_Dictionaryhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-merrian-webster_2-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodology#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Methodology&action=edit&section=3


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Howell, K. E. (2013) Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology. London:

Sage Publications.

James, E. Alana, Slater, T. and Bucknam, A. (2011).Action Research for Business, Nonprofit, andPublic Administration - A Tool for Complex Times .Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Joubish, Farooq Dr. (2009). Educational ResearchDepartment of Education, Federal Urdu

University, Karachi, Pakistan

Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods(3rd edition). Thousand Oaks,

California: Sage Publications.

Silverman, David (Ed). (2011). Qualitative Research: Issues of Theory, Method and Practice, Third

Edition. London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi, Singapore: Sage Publications

Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W. A.

Neilson, T. A. Knott, P. W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.

Data analysisAnalysis of datais a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modelingdatawith the goal of

discovering usefulinformation,suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. Data analysis

has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in

different business, science, and social science domains.

Data miningis a particular data analysis technique that focuses on modeling and knowledge discovery for

predictive rather than purely descriptive purposes.Business intelligencecovers data analysis that relies

heavily on aggregation, focusing on business information. Instatistical applications,some people divide

data analysis intodescriptive statistics,exploratory data analysis(EDA), andconfirmatory data

analysis(CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new features in the data and CDA on confirming or falsifying

existing hypotheses.Predictive analyticsfocuses on application of statistical or structural models for

predictive forecasting or classification, whiletext analyticsapplies statistical, linguistic, and structural

techniques to extract and classify information from textual sources, a species ofunstructured data.All are

varieties of data analysis.

Data integrationis a precursor to data analysis, and data analysis is closely linked to data

visualizationand data dissemination. The term data analysisis sometimes used as a synonym fordata

modeling.

The process of data analysis[edit]

Data analysis is aprocess,within which several phases can be distinguished:[1]

Processing of Data

Refers to concentrating, recasting and dealing with data in such a way that they become as amenable to

analysis as possible
http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235125http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235125http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235125http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235125http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstructured_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstructured_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstructured_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_visualizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstructured_datahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_analyticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmatory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datahttp://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235125http://www.sagepub.com/books/Book235125


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Data cleaning[edit]

The need for data cleaning will arise from problems in the way that data is entered and stored. Data

cleaning is process of preventing and correcting these errors. Common tasks include record matching,

deduplication, and column segmentation.[2]

There are several types of data cleaning that depend on the

type of data. Quantitative data methods for outlier detection can be used to get rid of likely incorrectlyentered data. Textual data spellcheckers can be used to lessen the amount of mistyped words, but it is

harder to tell if the words themselves are correct.[3]

Initial data analysis[edit]

The most important distinction between the initial data analysis phase and the main analysis phase, is

that during initial data analysis one refrains from any analysis that is aimed at answering the original

research question. The initial data analysis phase is guided by the following four questions :[4]

Quality of data[edit]

The quality of the data should be checked as early as possible. Data quality can be assessed in several

ways, using different types of analyses: frequency counts, descriptive statistics (mean, standard

deviation, median), normality (skewness, kurtosis, frequency histograms, n: variables are compared with

coding schemes of variables external to the data set, and possibly corrected if coding schemes are not

comparable.

Test forcommon-method variance.

The choice of analyses to assess the data quality during the initial data analysis phase depends on the

analyses that will be conducted in the main analysis phase.[5]

Quality of measurements[edit]

The quality of themeasurement instrumentsshould only be checked during the initial data analysis phasewhen this is not the focus or research question of the study. One should check whether structure of

measurement instruments corresponds to structure reported in the literature.

There are two ways to assess measurement

Analysis of homogeneity (internal consistency), which gives an indication of thereliabilityof a

measurement instrument. During this analysis, one inspects the variances of the items and the

scales, theCronbach's of the scales, and the change in the Cronbach's alpha when an item would

be deleted from a scale.[6]

Initial transformations[edit]

After assessing the quality of the data and of the measurements, one might decide to impute missing

data, or to perform initial transformations of one or more variables, although this can also be done during

the main analysis phase.[7]

Possible transformations of variables are:[8]

Square root transformation (if the distribution differs moderately from normal)

Log-transformation (if the distribution differs substantially from normal)

Inverse transformation (if the distribution differs severely from normal)
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In case therandomizationprocedure seems to be defective: can and should one calculatepropensity

scoresand include them as covariates in the main analyses?[11]

Analyses[edit]

Several analyses can be used during the initial data analysis phase:[12]

Univariate statistics (single variable)

Bivariate associations (correlations)

Graphical techniques (scatter plots)

It is important to take the measurement levels of the variables into account for the analyses, as special

statistical techniques are available for each level:[13]

Nominal and ordinal variables

Frequency counts (numbers and percentages)

Associations

circumambulations (crosstabulations)

hierarchical loglinear analysis (restricted to a maximum of 8 variables)

loglinear analysis (to identify relevant/important variables and possible confounders)

Exact tests or bootstrapping (in case subgroups are small)

Computation of new variables

Continuous variables

Distribution

Statistics (M, SD, variance, skewness, kurtosis) Stem-and-leaf displays

Box plots

Nonlinear analysis[edit]

Nonlinear analysis will be necessary when the data is recorded from a nonlinear system.Nonlinear

systems can exhibit complex dynamic effects

includingbifurcations,chaos,harmonicsandsubharmonicsthat cannot be analyzed using simple linear

methods. Nonlinear data analysis is closely related tononlinear system identification.[14]

Main data analysis[edit]

In the main analysis phase analyses aimed at answering the research question are performed as well as

any other relevant analysis needed to write the first draft of the research report.[15]

Exploratory and confirmatory approaches[edit]

In the main analysis phase either an exploratory or confirmatory approach can be adopted. Usually the

approach is decided before data is collected. In an exploratory analysis no clear hypothesis is stated
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifurcation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifurcation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifurcation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subharmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subharmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system_identificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system_identificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-SAB1-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-SAB1-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-SAB1-14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-SAB1-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_system_identificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subharmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bifurcation_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propensity_score_matchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomization


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before analysing the data, and the data is searched for models that describe the data well. In a

confirmatory analysis clear hypotheses about the data are tested.

Exploratory data analysisshould be interpreted carefully. When testing multiple models at once there is a

high chance on finding at least one of them to be significant, but this can be due to a type 1 error.It is

important to always adjust the significance level when testing multiple models with, for example,

aBonferroni correction.Also, one should not follow up an exploratory analysis with a confirmatory

analysis in the same dataset. An exploratory analysis is used to find ideas for a theory, but not to test that

theory as well. When a model is found exploratory in a dataset, then following up that analysis with a

comfirmatory analysis in the same dataset could simply mean that the results of the comfirmatory analysis

are due to the sametype 1 errorthat resulted in the exploratory model in the first place. The comfirmatory

analysis therefore will not be more informative than the original exploratory analysis.[16]

Stability of results[edit]

It is important to obtain some indication about how generalizable the results are.[17]

While this is hard to

check, one can look at the stability of the results. Are the results reliable and reproducible? There are two

main ways of doing this:

Cross-validation:By splitting the data in multiple parts we can check if analyzes (like a fitted model)

based on one part of the data generalize to another part of the data as well.

Sensitivity analysis:A procedure to study the behavior of a system or model when global parameters

are (systematically) varied. One way to do this is with bootstrapping.

Statistical methods[edit]

Many statistical methods have been used for statistical analyses. A very brief list of four of the more

popular methods is:

General linear model:A widely used model on which various methods are based (e.g. t

test,ANOVA,ANCOVA,MANOVA). Usable for assessing the effect of several predictors on one or

more continuous dependent variables.

Generalized linear model:An extension of the general linear model for discrete dependent variables.

Structural equation modelling:Usable for assessing latent structures from measured manifest

variables.

Item response theory:Models for (mostly) assessing one latent variable from several binary

measured variables (e.g. an exam).

Free software for data analysis[edit]

Data Applied- an online data mining and data visualization solution.

DevInfo- a database system endorsed by theUnited Nations Development Groupfor monitoring and

analyzing human development.

ELKI- data mining framework in Java with data mining oriented visualization functions.

KNIME- the Konstanz Information Miner, a user friendly and comprehensive data analytics

framework.

PAW- FORTRAN/C data analysis framework developed at CERN
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonferroni_correctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonferroni_correctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonferroni_correctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANCOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANCOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANCOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_linear_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_linear_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_equation_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_equation_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Appliedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Appliedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DevInfohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DevInfohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELKIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELKIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNIMEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNIMEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Analysis_Workstationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Analysis_Workstationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Analysis_Workstationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KNIMEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELKIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DevInfohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Appliedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_equation_modellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_linear_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANCOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANOVAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_linear_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-validation_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_analysis&action=edit&section=14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonferroni_correctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_1_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploratory_data_analysis


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SCaViS- a multiplatform (Java-based) data analysis framework from thejWork.ORGcommunity of

developers led by Dr. S.Chekanov

R- a programming language and software environment for statistical computing and graphics.

ROOT- C++ data analysis framework developed atCERN

dotplot - cloud based visual designer to create analytic models[18]

Education[edit]

Ineducation,most educators have access to adata systemfor the purpose of analyzing student

data.[19]

These data systems present data to educators in anover-the-counter dataformat (embedding

labels, supplemental documentation, and a help system and making key package/display and content

decisions) to improve the accuracy of educators data analyses.[20]

Nuclear and particle physics[edit]

Innuclearandparticle physicsthe data usually originate from theexperimental apparatusvia adata

acquisitionsystem. They are then processed, in a step usually called data reduction, to apply calibrations

and to extract physically significant information. Data reduction is most often, especially in largeparticlephysics experiments,an automatic, batch-mode operation carried out by software written ad-hoc. The

resulting data n-tuplesare then scrutinized by the physicists, using specialized software tools

likeROOTorPAW,comparing the results of the experiment with theory.

The theoretical models are often difficult to compare directly with the results of the experiments, so they

are used instead as input forMonte Carlo simulationsoftware likeGeant4,in order to predict the

response of the detector to a given theoretical event, thus producing simulated eventswhich are then

compared to experimental data.

BibliographyBibliography(fromGreek,bibliographia, literally "book writing"), as a discipline, is

traditionally the academic study ofbooksas physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known

as bibliology[1]

(from Greek -,-logia). Carter and Barker (2010) describe bibliography as a twofold

scholarly disciplinethe organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic,

description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography).

Branches of bibliography[edit]

Carter and Barker (2010) describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly disciplinethe organized listing of

books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic, description of books as physical objects

(descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve

differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg,Fredson Bowers,Philip

Gaskell, and G. Thomas Tanselle.

Bowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in specific

collections or libraries, in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers

to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artifact.

Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all

physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather

10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and
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techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive

practice.

Descriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description.

Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface,

binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as

Bower's established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description.The thought

expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Gregs groundbreaking theory that argued for the

adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned

with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that

analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a

book that most nearly represents the prin ters initial conception and intention in printing.

In addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches:

enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual, Bowers notes two further subcategories of research,

namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography.[2]

Both historical bibliography, which involves

the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which

examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.

D. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by W. W. Greg, Bowers, Gaskell

and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as "the discipline that studies texts as recorded

forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception" (1999 12). This

concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include "non-book texts" and an accounting for their

material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring

sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or

artifacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and,

ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as

well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.[3]

Bibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided

into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which

results in an overview ofpublicationsin a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which

studies the production of books.[4][5]

In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both

categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and

videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs[6]

and websites.

Enumerative bibliography[edit]

An enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such asjournalarticles.

Bibliographies range from "workscited"lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and

independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's,A. E.

Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be

in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases.Alibrary

catalog,while not referred to as a "bibliography," is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are

almost always considered to betertiary sources.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bibliography&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bibliography&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bibliography&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(publishing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(publishing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(publishing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliographic_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliographic_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliographic_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_cataloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_cataloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_cataloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_cataloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pn-samara-n-a-2000-11.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_cataloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_cataloghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliographic_databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_(publishing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bibliography&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography#cite_note-2


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Bibliographer workplace in Russia

Enumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other

characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource

including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an

enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analyticalbibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source

in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The

enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's

bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more

common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or

considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.

Citation styles vary. An entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:

creator(s)

title publisher and place of publication

date of publication

An entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:

creator(s)

article title

journal title

volume

pages

date of publication

A bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme.Annotated bibliographiesgive

descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These

descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its

relevance.Reference management softwaremay be used to keep track of references and generate

bibliographies as required.

Bibliographies differ fromlibrary catalogsby including only relevant items rather than all items present in

a particular library. However, the catalogs of somenational librarieseffectively serve as national

bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.

References[edit]

1. ^Jump up to:abcdefNeedles, Belverd E.; Powers, Marian (2013). Principles of Financial Accounting.

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Bookkeeping Introdution