Bridge Engineering · 2011-09-27 · Bridge Engineering Design, ... Construction Loads - 118 3.5.4 Deformation and Response Loads - 118 1. Shrinkage - 118 2. ... 3.12.5 Alternate

Bridge Engineering

BridgeEngineeringDesign, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance ofModern Highway Bridges

New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland BogotaCaracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City MilanMontreal New Delhi San Juan SingaporeSydney Tokyo Toronto

McGraw-Hill, Inc.

´

Jim J. Zhao, P.E.PresidentFrederick Engineering Consultants, LLC

Demetrios E. Tonias, P.E.PresidentHMC Group Ltd.

Third Edition

iv BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tonias, Demetrios E.Bridge engineering : design, rehabilitation, and maintenance of

modern highway bridges / Demetrios E. Tonias.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-07-065073-X (alk. paper)1. Bridges — Design and construction. 2. Bridges — Maintenance and

repair. I. Title.TG300.T66 1994624'.2 — dc20 95-12958

CIP

Copyright © 1995 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States ofAmerica. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of thispublication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in adata base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 KPT/KPT 9 0 9 8 7 6 5 4

ISBN 0-07-065073-X

The sponsoring editor for this book was Larry S. Hager, the editing supervisor was David E.Fogarty, and the production supervisor was Donald Schmidt.

This book was designed and set by Demetrios E. Tonias.

Printed and bound by Arcata Graphics/Kingsport.

Printed on acid-free paper.

Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-Hill, Inc., from sourcesbelieved to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its author guarantees the accuracyor completeness of any information published herein and neither McGraw-Hill nor its authorshall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of the use of thisinformation. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authorare supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professionalservices. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional shouldbe sought.

v

Contents

Preface xxi

Section 1 The Structure 1

1.11.11.11.11.1 USE AND FUNCTIONALITYUSE AND FUNCTIONALITYUSE AND FUNCTIONALITYUSE AND FUNCTIONALITYUSE AND FUNCTIONALITY 31.1.1 Terminology and Nomenclature - 4

1. Superstructure - 42. Substructure - 63. Appurtenances and Site Related Features - 94. Miscellaneous Terms - 11

1.1.2 Structure Types and Applications - 121. Slab-on-Stringer - 132. One-Way Slab - 153. Steel and Concrete Box Girder - 154. Cable-Stayed - 165. Suspension - 166. Steel and Concrete Arch - 177. Truss - 17

1.21.21.21.21.2 ORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGEORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGEORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGEORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGEORIGINS OF THE MODERN HIGHWAY BRIDGE 17

1.31.31.31.31.3 BRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTSBRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTSBRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTSBRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTSBRIDGE DESIGNERS AND THEIR PROJECTS 20

1.41.41.41.41.4 THE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICONTHE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICONTHE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICONTHE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICONTHE BRIDGE ENGINEERING LEXICON 22

REFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCES 38

Section 2 Project Inception 41

2.12.12.12.12.1 PROJECT FUNDINGPROJECT FUNDINGPROJECT FUNDINGPROJECT FUNDINGPROJECT FUNDING 412.1.1 User Fees - 422.1.2 Nonuser Fees - 432.1.3 Special Benefit Fees - 432.1.4 Private Financing - 432.1.5 Debt Financing - 442.1.6 Conclusions - 44

2.22.22.22.22.2 TYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDSTYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDSTYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDSTYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDSTYPES OF DESIGN STANDARDS 452.2.1 General Specifications - 452.2.2 Material-Related Design Codes - 46

1. Steel - 462. Concrete - 463. Timber - 47

viii BRIDGE ENGINEERING Contents from2.2.3 Use of Design Standards to

2.8 Conclusions

2.2.3 Use of Design Standards - 47

2.32.32.32.32.3 SITE INSPECTIONSITE INSPECTIONSITE INSPECTIONSITE INSPECTIONSITE INSPECTION 492.3.1 The Qualifications of Inspectors - 502.3.2 The Design Inspection - 502.3.3 Recording the Inspection - 512.3.4 Rating Substructure Elements - 52

1. Joints - 532. Bearings, Bridge Seats, and Pedestals - 533. Concrete Elements - 554. Steel Elements - 565. Timber Elements - 566. Embankment - 56

2.3.5 Rating Superstructure Elements - 571. Deck and Wearing Surface - 572. Primary and Secondary Members - 58

2.3.6 Rating Appurtenance and Site-Related Elements - 591. Railing - 592. Drainage Systems - 603. Utilities - 604. Lighting and Signing - 61

2.3.7 Inspecting for Scour - 611. The Channel - 612. The Substructure - 63

2.3.8 Conclusions - 63

2.42.42.42.42.4 SITE SURVEYSITE SURVEYSITE SURVEYSITE SURVEYSITE SURVEY 642.4.1 Topography - 642.4.2 Planimetry - 662.4.3 Structure Features - 66

2.52.52.52.52.5 PHYSICAL TESTINGPHYSICAL TESTINGPHYSICAL TESTINGPHYSICAL TESTINGPHYSICAL TESTING 672.5.1 Coring - 672.5.2 Delamination Testing - 682.5.3 Testing for Cover - 682.5.4 Measuring Steel Thickness - 682.5.5 Detecting Fatigue Cracks - 69

2.62.62.62.62.6 THE INSPECTION TEAMTHE INSPECTION TEAMTHE INSPECTION TEAMTHE INSPECTION TEAMTHE INSPECTION TEAM 69

2.72.72.72.72.7 AS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATAAS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATAAS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATAAS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATAAS-BUILT PLANS AND OTHER RECORD DATA 712.7.1 Supplementing As-Built Plans - 71

1. Guard Railing - 722. Drainage Facilities - 723. Traffic Barriers - 724. Miscellaneous Elements - 72

2.7.2 Other Sources - 73

2.82.82.82.82.8 CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS 73

ixContents fromSection 2 References to3.4.3 Compression Joint Seals

CONTENTS


Section 3 The Superstructure 77

3.13.13.13.13.1 SUPERSTRUCTURE TYPESSUPERSTRUCTURE TYPESSUPERSTRUCTURE TYPESSUPERSTRUCTURE TYPESSUPERSTRUCTURE TYPES 773.1.1 Steel Superstructures - 78

1. Rolled Beam - 792. Rolled Beam with Cover Plate - 793. Plate Girder - 794. Box Girder - 795. Steel Rigid Strut Frame - 806. Large Structures - 80

3.1.2 Concrete Superstructures - 801. Prestressed Concrete Girder - 802. Concrete Box Girder - 823. Concrete Slab - 834. Adjacent Prestressed Slab - 845. Concrete Rigid Frame - 846. Concrete Strut Frame - 847. Concrete Arch - 84

3.1.3 Timber Superstructures - 841. Glulam Timber - 842. Stressed-Laminated Timber Deck - 853. Trestle - 854. Truss - 85

3.1.4 Secondary Members - 861. Diaphragms - 862. Lateral Bracing - 883. Portal and Sway Bracing - 89

3.23.23.23.23.2 DECK TYPESDECK TYPESDECK TYPESDECK TYPESDECK TYPES 893.2.1 Noncomposite and Composite Decks - 893.2.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slab - 903.2.3 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Panels - 903.2.4 Steel Orthotropic Plate - 903.2.5 Steel Grid - 913.2.6 Timber - 923.2.7 Corrugated Metal - 923.2.8 Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) - 92

3.33.33.33.33.3 WEARING SURFACE TYPESWEARING SURFACE TYPESWEARING SURFACE TYPESWEARING SURFACE TYPESWEARING SURFACE TYPES 923.3.1 Asphalt Concrete - 923.3.2 Polymer Modified Concrete - 933.3.3 High Performance Concrete - 933.3.4 Integrated Wearing Surface - 93

3.43.43.43.43.4 DECK JOINT TYPESDECK JOINT TYPESDECK JOINT TYPESDECK JOINT TYPESDECK JOINT TYPES 943.4.1 Open and Sealed Joints - 943.4.2 Filled Joints - 95

x BRIDGE ENGINEERING

3.4.3 Compression Seal Joints - 953.4.4 Strip Seal Joints - 963.4.5 Modular Joints - 963.4.6 Finger Plate Joints - 983.4.7 Sliding Plate Joints - 993.4.8 Conclusions - 99

3.53.53.53.53.5 DESIGN LOADSDESIGN LOADSDESIGN LOADSDESIGN LOADSDESIGN LOADS 1003.5.1 Background and History - 1003.5.2 Permanent Loads - 101

1. Dead Load - 1012. Superimposed Dead Load - 1023. Pressures - 103

3.5.3 Temporary Loads - 1031. Vehicle Live Load - 1032. Pedestrain Load - 1053. Earthquake Loading - 1064. Wind Loading - 1125. Channel Forces - 1146. Braking Force - 1177. Centrifugal Forces - 1178. Dynamic Load Allowance - 1179. Construction Loads - 118

3.5.4 Deformation and Response Loads - 1181. Shrinkage - 1182. Creep - 1193. Settlement - 1204. Uplift - 1205. Thermal Movement - 121

3.5.5 Group Loading Combinations - 1221. AASHTO Standard Specifications - 1222. AASHTO LRFD Specifications - 122

3.63.63.63.63.6 DESIGN METHODSDESIGN METHODSDESIGN METHODSDESIGN METHODSDESIGN METHODS 1253.6.1 Working Stress Design - 1263.6.2 Limit States Design - 1283.6.3 Background and History - 1293.6.4 The Many Names of Working Stress and Limit States - 131

1. Allowable Stress Design - 1312. Service Load Design - 1313. Load Factor Design - 1314. Strength Design - 1315. Ultimate Strength - 1326. Load and Resistance Factor Design - 132

3.73.73.73.73.7 INTERNAL FORCESINTERNAL FORCESINTERNAL FORCESINTERNAL FORCESINTERNAL FORCES 1323.7.1 Bending Force - 1323.7.2 Shear Force - 1333.7.3 Torsional Force - 1333.7.4 Axial Force - 134

Contents from3.4.4 Strip Seal Joints to

3.7.4 Axial Force

xiContents from3.8 Load Distribution to3.10.7 Shear Connector Design

CONTENTS

3.83.83.83.83.8 LOAD DISTRIBUTIONLOAD DISTRIBUTIONLOAD DISTRIBUTIONLOAD DISTRIBUTIONLOAD DISTRIBUTION 1343.8.1 How Loads Are Distributed - 1353.8.2 Different Types of Load Distribution - 138

1. Interior Longitudinal Members - 1382. Exterior Longitudinal Members - 1383. Transverse Members - 1394. Adjacent Concrete Slabs (or Box Beams) - 1395. Other Multibeam Decks - 1416. Slab-Type Bridges - 142


3.93.93.93.93.9 CONCRETE DECK SLABSCONCRETE DECK SLABSCONCRETE DECK SLABSCONCRETE DECK SLABSCONCRETE DECK SLABS 1433.9.1 Effective Slab Strip - 1453.9.2 Calculation of Bending Moment - 1463.9.3 Distribution Reinforcement - 1493.9.4 Minimum Slab Thickness - 1503.9.5 Empirical Design Method - 1503.9.6 Slab Reinforcement Details - 1523.9.7 Construction, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance - 153

1. Increased Slab Thickness and Cover - 1542. Coated Reinforcement - 1543. Waterproofing Membrane - 1554. Drainage - 1565. Snow and Ice Removal - 1586. Patching - 1597. Sealing - 1608. Cathodic Protection - 1619. Chloride Extraction - 16210. Re-alkalization - 163


3.103.103.103.103.10 COMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERSCOMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERSCOMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERSCOMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERSCOMPOSITE STEEL MEMBERS 1643.10.1 Composite Action - 1643.10.2 Shored and Unshored Construction - 1673.10.3 Effective Flange Width - 1673.10.4 The Transformed Section - 1693.10.5 Effects of Creep - 1703.10.6 Choosing a Girder Section - 170

1. Compute Design Moments and Shear Forces - 1702. Total Factored Moment and Shear Forces - 1733. Choosing a Section - 1744. Composite Section in Positive Flexure - 1745. Composite Section in Negative Flexure and Non-Composite

Sections - 1806. Shaer Resistance of I-Sections - 1857. Web Bending-Buckling - 1878. Conclusions - 190

3.10.7 Shear Connector Design - 1901. Fatigue - 190

xii BRIDGE ENGINEERING Contents from3.10.8 Cover Plates to3.12.4 Influence Lines

2. Additional Geometric Constraints - 1943. Effect of Stay-in-Place Forms - 1954. Strength Limit State - 196

3.10.8 Bridge Fatigue - 2021. Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics - 2032. Stress-Life Method - 2043. AASHTO Method - 2064. Fatigue-Prone Details - 211

3.10.9 Deflections - 2123.10.10 Camber - 214

3.113.113.113.113.11 PLATE GIRDER DESIGNPLATE GIRDER DESIGNPLATE GIRDER DESIGNPLATE GIRDER DESIGNPLATE GIRDER DESIGN 2163.11.1 Hybrid Girders - 2173.11.2 Elements of a Plate Girder - 217

1. Flange Plate Thickness - 2172. Flange Plate Economy - 2183. Web Thickness - 2184. Web Plate Economy - 2195. Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners - 2196. Transverse Intermediate Stiffener Economy - 2247. Bearing Stiffeners - 2258. Longitudinal Stiffeners - 2269. Longitudinal Stiffener Economy - 22810. Miscellaneous Economy Issues - 229

3.11.3 Lateral Bracing for Plate Girders - 2301. Where Bracing is Located - 2302. Bracing as a Function of Span Length - 2313. Placement and Types of Lateral Bracing - 2314. Eliminating Lateral Bracing - 2315. Economy of Lateral Bracing - 232

3.11.4 Cross-Frames for Plate Girders - 232

3.123.123.123.123.12 CONTINUOUS BEAMSCONTINUOUS BEAMSCONTINUOUS BEAMSCONTINUOUS BEAMSCONTINUOUS BEAMS 2333.12.1 Advantages of Continuous Beams - 2333.12.2 Rolled Sections as Continuous Beams - 2343.12.3 Moment Distribution - 235

1. Overview - 2352. Fixed End Moments - 2353. Relative Beam Stiffness - 2364. Fixity Factor - 2365. Stiffness Factor - 2376. Distribution Factor - 2377. Carry Over Factor - 2378. Method Synopsis - 237

3.12.4 Influence Lines - 2421. General Moment Support Equation - 2432. Unit Loads - 2443. Influence Data at Intermediate Points - 2454. Predefined Tables - 247

xiiiContents from3.12.5 Alternate Method for Analysis of Continuous Beams to3.13.3. Weathering Steel

CONTENTS

5. Using Influence Lines - 2486. Area Under an Influence Line - 2507. Conclusions - 253

3.12.5 Alternate Method for Analysis of Continuous Beams - 2543.12.6 Live Load on Continuous Beam Structures - 263

1. Computing Moment Using Influence Lines - 2642. Special Load Points - 2663. Shear Forces - 266

3.12.7 Composite Section in Negative Bending - 2673.12.8 Girder Splices - 268

1. Required Strength - 2682. Welded Splices - 2693. Bolted Splices - 2704. Bolted Web Splices - 2745. Bolted Flange Splices - 276

3.12.9 Pin and Hanger Assemblies - 278

3.133.133.133.133.13 PROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURESPROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURESPROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURESPROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURESPROTECTING STEEL SUPERSTRUCTURES 2803.13.1 Protective Coating Systems - 280

1. Background and History - 2812. The Nature of Steel Corrosion - 2823. Inhibitive Primers - 2844. Sacrificial Primers - 2865. Barrier Coatings - 2866. Coating Applications - 2877. Surface Preparation - 2888. Overcoating - 2949. Micaceous Iron Oxide (MIO) Coatings - 29510. Conclusions - 296

3.13.2 Containment and Disposal of Paint Waste - 2981. Background and History - 2982. Containment Devices - 3003. Recycling Abrasives - 3044. Disposal Methods - 3055. Conclusions - 307

3.13.3 Weathering Steel - 3081. Background and History - 3082. Material Properties of Weathering Steel - 3093. Environmental Considerations - 3094. Maintenance of Weathering Steel - 3115. Inspection of Weathering Steel - 3116. Rehabilitation of Weathering Steel - 3127. Conclusions - 313

3.13.4 Galvanizing - 3131. Overview - 3142. Benefits and Drawbacks - 314


3.143.143.143.143.14 LOAD RATINGLOAD RATINGLOAD RATINGLOAD RATINGLOAD RATING 3153.14.1 Inventory and Operating Ratings - 316

xiv BRIDGE ENGINEERING

3.14.2 Field Measurements and Inspection - 3173.14.3 Loading the Structure - 3183.14.4 Working Stress Method - 318

1. Steel and Wrought Iron - 3192. Conventionally Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete - 3203. Masonry - 3214. Timber - 321

3.14.5 Load Factor Evaluation - 3223.14.6 Load and Resistance Factor Method - 323

1. Overview - 3232. Rating Procedures - 3243. Fatigue Life Evaluation - 3284. The Concept of Safe Evaluation - 3305. Conclusions - 331

3.153.153.153.153.15 PRESTRESSED CONCRETEPRESTRESSED CONCRETEPRESTRESSED CONCRETEPRESTRESSED CONCRETEPRESTRESSED CONCRETE 3313.15.1 Overview of Prestressed Concrete - 331

1. Pretensioned Beams - 3322. Posttensioned Beams - 3333. Application of Pre- and Posttensioned Concrete - 3344. Prestressing Steel - 3345. Concrete for Prestressing - 335

3.15.2 Composite Beams - 3361. Advantages - 3362. Effective Flange Width - 3363. Horizontal Shear - 336

3.15.3 Required Prestress Force - 3403.15.4 Loss of Prestress - 346

1. Elastic Shortening - 3462. Friction - 3483. Anchorage Set - 3504. Time Dependent Losses - 3505. Total Loss - 354

3.15.5 Allowable Stresses - 3543.15.6 Flexural Strength - 355

3.163.163.163.163.16 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCEPRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCEPRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCEPRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCEPRESTRESSED CONCRETE MAINTENANCE 3583.16.1 Overview - 3593.16.2 Deterioration of Prestressed Concrete - 360

1. Cracking - 3622. Other Forms of Concrete Problems - 3623. Deterioration of Prestressing Steel - 364

3.16.3 Inspection of Prestressed Concrete - 3653.16.4 Rehabilitation of Prestressed Concrete - 366

1. Patching - 3682. Permanent Formwork - 3693. Crack Injection - 3694. Sealers - 3705. Strengthening - 3716. Conclusions - 372

Contents from3.13.4 Galvanizing to

3.16.2 Deterioration of Prestressed Concrete

xv


Section 4 The Substructure 379

4.14.14.14.14.1 ABUTMENTSABUTMENTSABUTMENTSABUTMENTSABUTMENTS 3804.1.1 Types of Abutments - 380

1. Gravity Abutment - 3812. Cantilever Abutment - 3813. Full Height Abutment - 3824. Stub Abutment - 3825. Semi-Stub Abutment - 3826. U Abutment - 3827. Counterfort Abutment - 3828. Spill-through Abutment - 3839. Pile Bent Abutment - 38310. MSE Systems - 384

4.1.2 Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory - 3854.1.3 Abutment Foundation Design - 390

1. Loading - 3922. Spread Footings - 3933. Foundations on Piles - 3964. Foundations on Drilled Shafts - 398

4.1.4 Abutment Stem - 4004.1.5 Wingwalls - 4004.1.6 Other Related Foundation Topics - 4024.1.7 Mononobe - Okabe Analysis - 402

1. Background - 4032. Horizontal and Vertical Seismic Coefficients - 4043. Basic Assumption - 4064. Active Earth Pressure - 4065. Applying Active Earth Pressure - 4086. Caveats - 4107. Superstructure Loads - 410

4.1.8 Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 4101. Cracking - 4112. Surface Deterioration - 4123. Stability Problems - 4134. Bridge Seat Deterioration - 4145. Sheet Piling Abutments - 4166. Stone Masonry Abutments - 4167. MSE Systems - 4178. Footings - 4189. Piles - 418

4.24.24.24.24.2 PIERSPIERSPIERSPIERSPIERS 4204.2.1 Types of Piers - 421

1. Hammerhead - 4222. Column Bent - 423

Contents from3.16.3 Inspection of Prestressed Concrete to4.1.8 Rehabilitation and Maintenance

CONTENTS

3. Pile Bent - 4234. Solid Wall - 4235. Integral - 4246. Single Column - 424

4.2.2 Behavior and Loading of Piers - 4254.2.3 Design Criteria - 4254.2.4 Design of Compression Members - 428

1. Design Considerations - 4292. Slenderness Effects - 4303. Interaction Diagrams - 4364. Limits of Reinforcement - 439

4.2.5 Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 4414.2.6 Scour - 442

1. Overview - 4422. Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 4443. Replacement of Material - 4454. Changing the Structure - 4465. Replacing the Structure - 446

4.34.34.34.34.3 BEARINGSBEARINGSBEARINGSBEARINGSBEARINGS 447

4.3.1 Forces Acting on a Bearing - 4474.3.2 Movement of Bearings - 4494.3.3 Types of Bearings - 450

1. Rocker Bearings - 4502. Roller Bearings - 4513. Sliding Plate Bearings - 4524. Pot Bearings - 4525. Spherical Bearings - 4536. Elastomeric Bearings - 4537. Lead Rubber Bearings - 455

4.3.4 Rehabilitation and Maintenance - 456


Section 5 Implementation & Management 459

5.15.15.15.15.1 THE HIGHWAYTHE HIGHWAYTHE HIGHWAYTHE HIGHWAYTHE HIGHWAY 4605.1.1 Design Elements of a Highway - 460

1. Horizontal Alignment - 4612. Vertical Alignment - 4633. Stopping Sight Distance - 4654. Roadway Width - 469

5.1.2. Maintenance of Traffic - 471

5.25.25.25.25.2 CONTRACT DOCUMENTSCONTRACT DOCUMENTSCONTRACT DOCUMENTSCONTRACT DOCUMENTSCONTRACT DOCUMENTS 4735.2.1 Design Submissions - 474

1. Alternative Study - 4742. Preliminary Submission - 4753. Advanced Detail Submission - 476

Contents from4.2 Piers to

5.1.2 Maintenance of Traffic

Contents from5.2 Contract Documents toAbout the Authors

CONTENTS

4. Final Submission - 4775.2.2 Computer Aided Design and Drafting - 477

1. File Organization - 4782. Geometric Source Files - 4803. The Forgotten D in CADD - 4804. Graphic Standards and Quality Control - 481


5.35.35.35.35.3 BRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSBRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSBRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSBRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMSBRIDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS 4835.3.1 Background and History - 4845.3.2 Inventory Database - 4855.3.3 Maintenance Database - 4865.3.4 Project and Network Level Analysis - 4865.3.5 Predicting the Condition of Bridges - 4875.3.6 Miscellaneous Decision Assisting Criteria - 4885.3.7 Costing Models - 4885.3.8 Optimization Models - 4895.3.9 Building the Database - 4895.3.10 Managing Small and Large Structures - 4905.3.11 Current Bridge Management Systems - 4915.3.12 BMS Link to Design of Bridges - 4915.3.13 BMS Link to Pavement Management Systems - 4945.3.14 GIS and Imaging Technologies - 494


APPENDIXAPPENDIXAPPENDIXAPPENDIXAPPENDIX 497

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTSACKNOWLEDGMENTS 499

ILLUSTRATION CREDITSILLUSTRATION CREDITSILLUSTRATION CREDITSILLUSTRATION CREDITSILLUSTRATION CREDITS 500

INDEXINDEXINDEXINDEXINDEX 502

ABOUT THE AUTHORSABOUT THE AUTHORSABOUT THE AUTHORSABOUT THE AUTHORSABOUT THE AUTHORS 509

Design Examples

A PREDATORY ATTITUDE?A PREDATORY ATTITUDE?A PREDATORY ATTITUDE?A PREDATORY ATTITUDE?A PREDATORY ATTITUDE? 21

IS PRIVATIZATION AN ANSWER?IS PRIVATIZATION AN ANSWER?IS PRIVATIZATION AN ANSWER?IS PRIVATIZATION AN ANSWER?IS PRIVATIZATION AN ANSWER? 43

WHO SHOULD INSPECT WHAT AND WHEN?WHO SHOULD INSPECT WHAT AND WHEN?WHO SHOULD INSPECT WHAT AND WHEN?WHO SHOULD INSPECT WHAT AND WHEN?WHO SHOULD INSPECT WHAT AND WHEN? 53

LIMIT STATES DESIGN - CONCRETE FIRST, STEEL FOLLOWEDLIMIT STATES DESIGN - CONCRETE FIRST, STEEL FOLLOWEDLIMIT STATES DESIGN - CONCRETE FIRST, STEEL FOLLOWEDLIMIT STATES DESIGN - CONCRETE FIRST, STEEL FOLLOWEDLIMIT STATES DESIGN - CONCRETE FIRST, STEEL FOLLOWED 128

AASHTO LOAD DISTRIBUTION: IS IT TOO CONSERVATIVE?AASHTO LOAD DISTRIBUTION: IS IT TOO CONSERVATIVE?AASHTO LOAD DISTRIBUTION: IS IT TOO CONSERVATIVE?AASHTO LOAD DISTRIBUTION: IS IT TOO CONSERVATIVE?AASHTO LOAD DISTRIBUTION: IS IT TOO CONSERVATIVE? 135

IS LEAD BRIDGE PAINT HAZARDOUS?IS LEAD BRIDGE PAINT HAZARDOUS?IS LEAD BRIDGE PAINT HAZARDOUS?IS LEAD BRIDGE PAINT HAZARDOUS?IS LEAD BRIDGE PAINT HAZARDOUS? 306

WEATHERING STEEL ENVIRONMENTS: THIS ONE'S JUST RIGHT.WEATHERING STEEL ENVIRONMENTS: THIS ONE'S JUST RIGHT.WEATHERING STEEL ENVIRONMENTS: THIS ONE'S JUST RIGHT.WEATHERING STEEL ENVIRONMENTS: THIS ONE'S JUST RIGHT.WEATHERING STEEL ENVIRONMENTS: THIS ONE'S JUST RIGHT. 310

STEEL VS. CONCRETE: WHICH ONE IS BETTER FOR BRIDGES?STEEL VS. CONCRETE: WHICH ONE IS BETTER FOR BRIDGES?STEEL VS. CONCRETE: WHICH ONE IS BETTER FOR BRIDGES?STEEL VS. CONCRETE: WHICH ONE IS BETTER FOR BRIDGES?STEEL VS. CONCRETE: WHICH ONE IS BETTER FOR BRIDGES? 340

Design Perspectives

Section 3 The Superstructure

3.13.13.13.13.1 DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DECK SLAB - STRIP METHODDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DECK SLAB - STRIP METHODDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DECK SLAB - STRIP METHODDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DECK SLAB - STRIP METHODDESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DECK SLAB - STRIP METHOD 143

3.23.23.23.23.2 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE INTERIOR STEEL STRINGERDESIGN OF COMPOSITE INTERIOR STEEL STRINGERDESIGN OF COMPOSITE INTERIOR STEEL STRINGERDESIGN OF COMPOSITE INTERIOR STEEL STRINGERDESIGN OF COMPOSITE INTERIOR STEEL STRINGER 173

3.33.33.33.33.3 FATIGUE CHECK FOR A COMPOSITE STEEL STRINGER BRIDGEFATIGUE CHECK FOR A COMPOSITE STEEL STRINGER BRIDGEFATIGUE CHECK FOR A COMPOSITE STEEL STRINGER BRIDGEFATIGUE CHECK FOR A COMPOSITE STEEL STRINGER BRIDGEFATIGUE CHECK FOR A COMPOSITE STEEL STRINGER BRIDGE 203

3.43.43.43.43.4 INFLUENCE LINES FOR A THREE SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM STRUCTUREINFLUENCE LINES FOR A THREE SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM STRUCTUREINFLUENCE LINES FOR A THREE SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM STRUCTUREINFLUENCE LINES FOR A THREE SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM STRUCTUREINFLUENCE LINES FOR A THREE SPAN CONTINUOUS BEAM STRUCTURE 245

3.53.53.53.53.5 DESIGN OF TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS PLATE GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS PLATE GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS PLATE GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS PLATE GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF TWO SPAN CONTINUOUS PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE 257

3.63.63.63.63.6 DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I GIRDER BRIDGEDESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE I GIRDER BRIDGE 339

Section 4 The Substructure

4.14.14.14.14.1 DESIGN OF STUB ABUTMENT UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGDESIGN OF STUB ABUTMENT UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGDESIGN OF STUB ABUTMENT UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGDESIGN OF STUB ABUTMENT UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGDESIGN OF STUB ABUTMENT UNDER SEISMIC LOADING 383

4.24.24.24.24.2 ANALYSIS OF COLUMN BENT PIER UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGANALYSIS OF COLUMN BENT PIER UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGANALYSIS OF COLUMN BENT PIER UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGANALYSIS OF COLUMN BENT PIER UNDER SEISMIC LOADINGANALYSIS OF COLUMN BENT PIER UNDER SEISMIC LOADING 427

Section 5 Implementation & Management

5.15.15.15.15.1 CLEARANCE FOR A BRIDGE CROSSING AN UNDERPASS HIGHWAYCLEARANCE FOR A BRIDGE CROSSING AN UNDERPASS HIGHWAYCLEARANCE FOR A BRIDGE CROSSING AN UNDERPASS HIGHWAYCLEARANCE FOR A BRIDGE CROSSING AN UNDERPASS HIGHWAYCLEARANCE FOR A BRIDGE CROSSING AN UNDERPASS HIGHWAY 465

Preface

he third edition of Bridge Engineering preserves most of the textand style of the previous ones. At the same time it presents anumber of significant changes and additions.

A book of this nature is an ever evolving project.During the time when this book was first written there had been

a major change in the bridge design methods. Allowable stress design (ASD),and to some less extend, load factor design (LFD), dominated bridge engineeringprofession 17 years ago in this county. The Bridge Engineering saw a transitiontowards the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) when the second editionof the book was prepared. Today we have completed the transition ofimplementing LRFD as a uniformed design method. One thing we can becertain is that bridge engineering, whether the design theory or practice, willcontinue to advance in the years to come.

As a result of implementing LRFD method, almost every section hasbeen amended in some way and many have been expanded or substantiallyrewritten for the third edition. Also new to this edition are topics related tobridge load rating and fatigue life evaluation, which are essential part of bridgeevaluation, maintenance, and management.

Due to the advance of bridge design theory and constructionmaterials, the improved design details accumulated from thousands of bridgedesigners and inspectors, the implementation of bridge inspection program, andbridge management system, we can now design bridges that last a lot longer withbetter safety and performance than the bridges built 50 years ago. This trendwill certainly continue, with the help of bridge professionals like you.

The third edition will not only introduce the theory and philosophy ofbridge design to the young engineers but also present the complete tasks ofbridge design, maintenance, inspection, rehabilitation, and management. I hopeto enlist talents and new enthusiasm in working towards improving our agingtransportation infrastructures. Our nation’s future economy and growthdepend on newer and more reliable bridges in the transportation system.

Jim J. Zhao, P.E.

Germantown, MarylandJune, 2011

T

Preface to the First Edition

ighway bridges dot our landscape by the hundreds of thou-sands. We pass over and under them, paying no moreattention to these structures than we would a tree or a hill.Indeed, the highway bridge has become part of our environ-ment. From an historical perspective, the modern highway

bridge was born in the depression years of the 1930's, came of age in the 1950'sto 1970's, and is entering its golden years in the 1980's and 1990's. Thesestructures have performed so well, they have been so durable, that most of us,engineers or not, tend to take the highway bridge for granted. We simply cannotenvision a time when the life of these structures will reach the stage when theywill no longer be so durable; when we will no longer be able to take the highwaybridge for granted. We have, however, reached that time.

The majority of bridges in our infrastructure were constructed in an erawhen the growth of our transportation networks was less of an expansion andmore of an explosion. The engineers of this era were faced with the dauntingtask of designing and erecting structures at a pace that many engineers in thepresent, litigiously active, society have difficulty imagining. Because thoseindividuals charged with the design and maintenance of these bridges did sucha good job, the work of today's bridge engineers is tightly interwoven with thoseof their predecessors.

Old bridges don't die or fade away; they deteriorate. The concrete spalls,the steel corrodes, the piers settle. Still, traffic passes over them. The snowplows come and the deicing agents spray against exposed concrete surfacescausing an electrochemical reaction that accelerates the deterioration ofconcrete. And still the traffic comes. The trucking industry, as much abeneficiary of the highway bridge as any other industry, pushes the design ofstructures to the outside of the envelope. Taller trailers barely squeak throughminimum vertical clearances, heavier trucks test the load-carrying capacity ofprimary members. Through it all, the traffic still comes and, remarkably, thebridges still stand.

How and why these highway bridges perform in such a remarkable fashionis what this book is about. Civil engineering, by definition, is a diverse,multifaceted profession. As civil engineering projects go, the design, rehabili-tation, and maintenance of modern highway bridges requires the incorporationof just about every discipline in the civil engineer's repertoire. In this respect,integration, rather than specialization, is the key to the performance of ahighway bridge.

H

constructed in an era whenthe growth of our transporta-tion networks was less of anexpansion and more of an ex-plosion.

he majority of bridges inour infrastructure wereT

xxii BRIDGE ENGINEERING

There are many ways to write a book about highway bridges. The reader,when using this text, should always keep in mind that this book is about bridgeengineering, a subject which is much broader than bridge design alone. In the past,it may have been possible for designers to ignore the important subjects ofmaintenance and rehabilitation when designing bridges. Today, however, thereis a heightened awareness of the important roles these subjects play, even in thedesign of a completely new structure. Engineers are also increasingly beingcalled upon to retrofit and strengthen existing structures which still can offerseveral years, if not decades, of additional service.

This text is intended to serve as an overview of the bridge engineeringprocess: from the origins of a bridge project through its design and the eventualmaintenance and rehabilitation of a structure. Due to the wide variety ofstructure types currently being used, it would be impossible for any singlevolume to cover each specific type of highway bridge in intimate detail. Anattempt has been made, however, to provide a description of all of the majorforms of highway bridges used, with an emphasis placed on the types ofstructures which are most prevalent. The book is divided into five majorsections which provide an examination of

o The structure as a wholeo How a bridge project beginso Superstructure elementso Substructure elementso The implementation and management of a bridge in a highway

network

The reader will notice that there is no specific section for design,rehabilitation, or maintenance. All three subjects are discussed concurrently forany given topic. For example, the design of a concrete deck is followedimmediately by a discussion of rehabilitation and maintenance techniques. Thematerial is organized in such a fashion, in part, because it is functional andbeneficial to the reader. The organization of the material, however, is alsomeant to serve as a symbol of the importance of integrating these three projectphases. One cannot design a structure in today's environment without planningfor its future maintenance. Similarly, it is impossible to maintain a bridgewithout understanding the nature of its design. The rehabilitation design of astructure offers a whole new set of circumstances which confront an engineer.All of these subjects play off one another in such an intimate fashion, that anengineer engaged in the design of a bridge must be constantly aware of how eachpart of the design-rehabilitate-maintain process works in relationship toanother.

This text is intended to be more practical than theoretical. In terms ofanalytical techniques, there is no new ground broken in this book. Rather, thebook is meant to synthesize and coalesce the broad range of material into acoherent document describing the entire bridge engineering process. Thereader will notice this when perusing through the sections on such diverse, yetimportant, topics as project funding, inspection of bridges, preparation ofcontract documents, and the development of a Bridge Management System(BMS).

The presentation of the material in this book is also somewhat different

in mind that this book is aboutbridge engineering; a subjectwhich is much broader thanbridge design alone.

he reader, when using thistext, should always keepT

Bridge Engineering Encompasses More Than DesignHow the Text Is Organized

Design, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance Discussed Concur rently

xxiii

from the engineering texts we have become accustomed to. Although thegraphical presentation of the subject matter may seem like a new approach, itis really a throwback to a style of text which was more prevalent 40 years ago.Design examples, for instance, are presented in a calculation sheet format, justas a designer would write them up in an actual bridge project. This techniquehas previously been used by authors like George Large in his excellent treatiseon reinforced concrete design, which was first published in 1950 [Ref. 3.46].Since the design examples have been separated from the text, they do not breakthe continuity of the discussion. This approach also has the benefit of notconfusing the reader when perusing through the design sections, as can be thecase when a calculation step is mistaken for an equation and vice versa. To theimmediate right of each calculation sheet is an in-depth discussion of the stepstaken on the particular sheet. Contained within each step outline are referencesto pertinent specifications and equations located within the text proper.

The large physical dimensions of the text are specifically used to allow forthe incorporation of sidebars to the left and right side of each facing page. Theuse of large margins, such as these, dates back even further than George Large'sbook. In what has euphemistically (and somewhat erroneously) become knownas the dark ages, monks and scholars provided large margins around their textso that the author, or the people reading the document, could gloss the text. A"gloss" was a comment, explanation, or translation of the material locatedwithin the accompanying manuscript. In this vein, a variety of information isprovided in each page's sidebars. Almost always there is a direct quote from theaccompanying text which has been pulled out to act as a highlight of theinformation provided on the page and draw the reader's attention to anespecially important fact or issue.

Also included in the sidebars are design specifications which are relevantto the material being discussed on the page. This saves the reader from the taskof constantly having to flip back and forth between pages. The structure of thedesign examples follows a similar logic. Within the sidebars, the reader will alsofind quotes from some of the reference material. These quotes are intendedto act as an accent on the topics currently being discussed. It is hoped that thereaders, like the reviewers of medieval manuscripts, will gloss the text with theirown notes, commentary, and thoughts.

No matter how important bridge engineering is, the subject matter canbecome a little dry sometimes. To break the monotony which will inevitablyoccur in any engineering text, Did You Know? sidebars are provided which offerrelevant historical data, statistics, or other information about the subject mattercurrently being discussed, which the reader may or may not be aware of. Toprovide a real world slant on the information being covered, several separatediscussion pieces have been included under the Design Perspective header. Thesediscussions offer some current thinking on a variety of interesting andcontroversial issues such as the hazards of lead bridge paint and steel vs.concrete bridges.

At the top of each page, three lines are provided which give a synopsis ofthe major topics discussed on a given page. This synopsis acts as a sort of on-the-fly outline. It is realized that engineering books are not so much read as theyare referenced. Because of this, the information located in the margins of thedocument are intended to act as pointers, directing the reader's attention to thematerial contained within. Hopefully, as the reader flips back and forth, looking

dark ages, monks and schol-ars provided large marginsaround their text so that theauthor, or the people readingthe document, could gloss thetext.

n what has euphemistically... become known as theI

Discussion of Presentation of MaterialDesign Examples Presented as Calculation SheetsSidebars Highlight Material in the Text

PREFACE

xxiv BRIDGE ENGINEERING

for the desired information, he or she will use the sidebars as tools in identifyingpertinent information.

Included at the end of the first section is a Bridge Engineering Lexicon. Thislexicon acts as a glossary of pertinent bridge engineering terms. For the readerwho is new to bridge design, it is important to spend time reviewing this list.Since most civil engineers possess a common background in structural design(at least from college experience), one of the first major hurdles that must beovercome is the development of a familiarity with the nomenclature used ona daily basis by bridge designers. For the most part, the definitions provided inthe lexicon reappear throughout the course of the text. The lexicon should serveas a quick lookup table for readers so that they do not have to consult the index,flip to a page in the book, and then try to track down the definition they arelooking for.

The design, rehabilitation, and maintenance of highway bridges is, at leastfor this author, an exciting subject. More than that, however, the engineeringof highway bridges is an important subject. From a distance, it is difficult toappreciate our dependence on highway bridges and the important role they,along with the highways they carry, play in our modern economy. Theindividuals charged with the responsibility of keeping these structures opera-tional are faced with a daunting task. With limited resources and imposingconstraints, somehow the job manages to get done. It is hoped that, in somesmall way, this text will help in the effort to design, rehabilitate, and maintainhighway bridges, into the next century and beyond.

Demetrios E. Tonias, P.E.

Schenectady, New YorkMarch, 1994

way bridges is, at least for thisauthor, an exciting subject.More than that, however, theengineering of highway bridgesis an important subject.

he design, rehabilitation,and maintenance of high-T

Engineering Books Are Referenced More Than ReadLexicon Acts as a Dictionar y of Bridge Terms

Importance of Bridge Engineering

xxv