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Britain in Palestine1922 - 1948

British Mandate for Palestine 1

British Mandate for Palestine

Mandate for Palestineنيطسلف ىلع يناطيربلا بادتنالا

י"א הניתשלפ לע יטירבה טדנמהMandate of the United Kingdom

← 1920–1948

→ → → →

Flag Public Seal

The Mandate for Palestine borders as eventually determinedCapital Jerusalem

Language(s) English, Arabic, Hebrew

Political structure League of Nations Mandate

High Commissioners

- 1920–1925 Sir Herbert Louis Samuel

- 1945–1948 Sir Alan G. Cunningham

Historical era Interwar Period

- Mandate assigned 25 April 1920

British Mandate for Palestine 2

- Britain officially assumes control 29 September 1923

- Transjordanian independence 25 May 1946

- Israel independence 14 May 1948

Currency Palestine pound

Today part of  Israel  Jordan  Palestinian territories  Saudi Arabia  Iraq

This article deals with the Mandate instrument passed by the League of Nations granting Britain a mandateover the area presently occupied by Israel, the West Bank, Gaza Strip and Jordan. For a history of the period,see Mandate Palestine.

The British Mandate for Palestine, also known as the Palestine Mandate and The British Mandate of Palestine,was a legal commission for the administration of Palestine, the draft of which was formally confirmed by theCouncil of the League of Nations on 24 July 1922 and which came into effect on 26 September 1923.[1] Thedocument was based on the principles contained in Article 22 of the draft Covenant of the League of Nations and theSan Remo Resolution of 25 April 1920 by the principal Allied and associated powers after the First World War.[1]

The mandate formalised British rule in the southern part of Ottoman Syria from 1923–1948. With the League ofNations' consent on 16 September 1922, the UK divided the Mandate territory into two administrative areas,Palestine, under direct British rule, and autonomous Transjordan, under the rule of the Hashemite family from theKingdom of Hejaz in present-day Saudi Arabia, in accordance with the McMahon Correspondence of 1915.[1]

Following the 1922 Transjordan memorandum, the area east of the Jordan river became exempt from the Mandateprovisions concerning the Jewish National Home.[1] [2]

The preamble of the mandate declared:Whereas the Principal Allied Powers have also agreed that the Mandatory should be responsible forputting into effect the declaration originally made on November 2nd, 1917, by the Government of HisBritannic Majesty, and adopted by the said Powers, in favour of the establishment in Palestine of anational home for the Jewish people, it being clearly understood that nothing should be done whichmight prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or therights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.[3]

The formal objective of the League of Nations Mandate system was to administer parts of the defunct OttomanEmpire, which had been in control of the Middle East since the 16th century, "until such time as they are able tostand alone."[4]

British Mandate for Palestine 3

Background

Strategy against the Ottoman Empire

Zones of French and British influence and controlproposed in the Sykes-Picot Agreement

When the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in the FirstWorld War in April 1915, it threatened Britain's communicationswith India via the Suez Canal, besides other strategic interests ofthe allies. The conquest of Palestine was thus part of an articulatedstrategy by Britain's military and political leadership aimed atestablishing a land bridge between the Mediterranean and thePersian Gulf. This would enable rapid deployment of troops to theGulf, then the forward line of defense for British interests in India,and protect against invasion from the north by Russia. A landbridge was also an alternative to the Suez Canal.[5]

In response to French initiatives, the United Kingdom establishedthe De Bunsen Committee in 1915 to consider the nature of Britishobjectives in Turkey and Asia in the event of a successfulconclusion of the war. The committee considered variousscenarios and provided guidelines for negotiations with France,Italy, and Russia regarding the partitioning of the OttomanEmpire. The Committee recommended in favour of the creation ofa decentralised and federal Ottoman state in Asia.[6]

At the same time, the British and French also opened overseas fronts with the Gallipoli (1915) and Mesopotamiancampaigns. In Gallipoli, the Turks successfully repelled the British, French and Australian and New Zealand ArmyCorps (ANZACs).

In 1916, Britain and France concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which proposed to divide the Middle Eastbetween them into spheres of influence, with "Palestine" as an international enclave. (Pappé 1994, p. 3)The British made two potentially conflicting promises regarding the territory it was expecting to acquire.[7] Britainhad promised Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, through T. E. Lawrence, independence for an Arab country coveringmost of the Arab Middle East in exchange for his support, while also promising to create and foster a Jewish nationalhome in Palestine in the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in return for Jewish support.

British Mandate for Palestine 4

World War I in the Middle East

General Allenby's final attacks of the PalestineCampaign gave Britain control of the area

The surrender of Jerusalem by the Ottomans to theBritish on 9 December 1917 following the Battle of

Jerusalem

From 1915, Zionist leader and anglophile Ze'ev Jabotinsky waspressing the British to agree to the formation of a Zionist volunteercorps that would serve under the aegis of the British army. TheBritish eventually agreed to set up the Zion Mule Corps, whichassisted in the failed invasion of Gallipoli.

After Lloyd George was made prime minister during the war, theBritish waged the Sinai and Palestine Campaign under GeneralAllenby. This time the British agreed to a "Jewish Legion", whichparticipated in the invasion. Russian Jews regarded the Germanarmy as a liberator and the creation of the Legion was designed toencourage them to participate in the war on Britain's side.

At the same time, British intelligence officer T. E. Lawrence("Lawrence of Arabia") was encouraging an Arab Revolt led bythe Sharif of Mecca.

The British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces in 1917 and occupiedPalestine and Syria. The land remained under British militaryadministration for the remainder of the war, and beyond.

After the War

The Ottoman Empire capitulated on 30 October 1918, and on 23November 1918, a military edict was issued dividing Ottomanterritories into "occupied enemy territories" (OET). The MiddleEast was divided into three OETs. Occupied Enemy TerritorySouth extended from the Egyptian border of Sinai into Palestineand Lebanon as far north as Acre and Nablus and as far east as theRiver Jordan. A temporary British military governor (GeneralMoony) would administer this sector.[8] [9] [10] At that time,General Allenby assured Amir Faisal "that the Allies were inhonour bound to endeavour to reach a settlement in accordancewith the wishes of the peoples concerned and urged him to placehis trust whole-heartedly in their good faith."[11]

In a meeting at Deauville in 1919, David Lloyd George of the UKand Georges Clemenceau of France finalised the Anglo-FrenchSettlement of 1–4 December 1918. The new agreement allocatedPalestine and the Vilayet of Mosul to the British in exchange forBritish support of French influence in Syria and Lebanon.[12] [13]

In October 1919, British forces in Syria and the last Britishsoldiers stationed east of the Jordan were withdrawn and theregion came under exclusive control of Faisal bin Hussein fromDamascus. (Biger 2004, p. 173)

At the Paris Peace Conference, Prime Minister Lloyd George told Georges Clemenceau and the other allies that the McMahon-Hussein correspondence were a treaty obligation. He explained that the agreement with Hussein had actually been the basis for the Sykes-Picot Agreement, and that the French could not use the proposed League Of

British Mandate for Palestine 5

Nations Mandate system to break the terms of the agreement. He pointed out that the French had agreed not tooccupy the area of the independent Arab state, or confederation of states, with their military forces, including theareas of Damascus, Homs, Hama, and Aleppo. Arthur Balfour (later Lord Balfour, British Foreign Secretary at thetime) and President Woodrow Wilson were present at the meeting.[14]

The open negotiations began at the Paris Peace Conference, continued at the Conference of London and took definiteshape only after the San Remo conference in April 1920. There the Allied Supreme Council granted the mandates forPalestine and Mesopotamia to Britain,[15] and those for Syria and Lebanon to France. In August 1920, this wasofficially acknowledged in the Treaty of Sèvres. Both Zionist and Arab representatives attended the conference,where they met and signed an agreement[16] to cooperate. The agreement was never implemented.

The Mandate

Practical and legal basis

Emir Faisal's delegation at Versailles, during theParis Peace Conference of 1919. Left to right:Rustum Haidar, Nuri as-Said, Prince Faisal,

Captain Pisani (behind Faisal), T. E. Lawrence,Captain Hassan Khadri

The Official Journal of the League of Nations, dated June 1922,contained an interview with Lord Balfour in which he opined that theLeague's authority was strictly limited. According to Balfour –

[the] Mandates were not the creation of the League, andthey could not in substance be altered by the League. TheLeague's duties were confined to seeing that the specificand detailed terms of the mandates were in accordancewith the decisions taken by the Allied and AssociatedPowers, and that in carrying out these mandates theMandatory Powers should be under the supervision—notunder the control—of the League. A mandate was aself-imposed limitation by the conquerors on thesovereignty which they exercised over the conqueredterritory.[17]

Each of the principal Allied powers had a hand in drafting theproposed mandate[18] —although some, including the United States, had not declared war on the Ottoman Empireand did not become members of the League of Nations.

Emir Feisal I (right) and Chaim Weizmann (alsowearing Arab garment as a sign of friendship) in

Syria, 1918

The Sykes-Picot Agreement did not call for Arab sovereignty, but forthe "suzerainty of an Arab chief" and "an international administration,the form of which is to be decided upon after consultation with Russia,and subsequently in consultation with the other allies, and therepresentatives of the Sherif of Mecca."[19] Under the terms of thatagreement, the Zionist Organization needed to secure an agreementalong the lines of the Faisal-Weizmann Agreement with the Sherif ofMecca.

At the Peace Conference in 1919, Emir Faisal, speaking on behalf ofKing Hussein, asked for Arab independence, or at minimum the rightto pick the mandatory.[20] In the end, he recommended an Arab stateunder a British mandate.[21] The World Zionist Organization alsoasked for a British mandate, and asserted the 'historic title of the Jewish people to Palestine'.[22]

A confidential appendix to the report of the King-Crane Commission observed that "The Jews are distinctly for Britain as mandatory power, because of the Balfour declaration' and that the French 'resent the payment by the

British Mandate for Palestine 6

English to the Emir Feisal of a large monthly subsidy, which they claim covers a multitude of bribes, and enables theBritish to stand off and show clean hands while Arab agents do dirty work in their interest."[23] TheFaisal-Weizmann Agreement called for British mediation of any disputes. It also called for the establishment ofborders, after the Versailles peace conference, by a commission to be formed for the purpose. The World ZionistOrganization later submitted to the peace conference a proposed map of the territory that did not include the area eastof the Hedjaz Railway, including most of Transjordan. In the Sanremo Conference (24 April 1920) the Mandate forPalestine was allocated to Great Britain. France required the continuation of its religious protectorate in Palestine butItaly and Great Britain opposed it. France lost the religious protectorate but thanks to the Holy See continued toenjoy liturgical honours in Mandatory Palestine until 1924 when the honours were abolished (see: Protectorate of theHoly See).[24]

The mandate was a legal and administrative instrument, not a geographical territory.[25] The territorial jurisdiction ofthe mandate was subject to change by treaty, capitulation, grant, usage, sufferance or other lawful means. To manyobservers it seemed as though the boundary of Britain's mandate for Palestine was to extend eastward to the westernboundary of its mandate for Mesopotamia.[26] However, the area east of a line from Damascus, Homs, Hamma, andAleppo – including most of Transjordan – had been pledged in 1915 as part of an undertaking between the UK andthe Sharif Hussein of Mecca. The area east of the Jordan River 'was included in the areas as to which Great Britain[sic] pledged itself that they should be Arab and independent in the future'. At the 1919 Peace Conference, theZionist Organization's claims did not include any territory east of the Hedjaz Railway. The Faisal-WeizmannAgreement provided that the boundaries between the Arab state and Palestine should be determined by a commissionafter the Paris Peace Conference.The proposed Arab state and Jewish national home called for separate boundaries and administrative regimes in thesub-districts of historical Cisjordan (west of the Jordan River) and Transjordan (east of the Jordan River). ThePalestine Order in Council provided that:

The High Commissioner may, with the approval of a Secretary of State, by Proclamation dividePalestine into administrative divisions or districts in such manner and with such subdivisions as may beconvenient for purposes of administration describing the boundaries thereof and assigning namesthereto.[27]

Transjordan (Article 25)Under the terms of the McMahon-Hussein correspondence and Sykes-Picot agreements, the land east of the Jordanwas to be part of an Arab state or confederation of Arab states part of the purpose of which was to create an Arabterritory east of the Jordan River. When the Inter-Allied Conference at San Remo adjourned in April 1920, the textof the Palestine mandate did not contain Article 25, or mention "the territories lying between the Jordan and theeastern boundary of Palestine as ultimately determined". Sanford Silverburg said that "a Palestine" within thewestern political understanding of the term simply never existed." He observed that the failure to establish awestern-based territorial element or frame of reference had clouded discussions and cited the claim that Transjordanhad been detached from Palestine as a non-sequitur.[28]

Mary Wilson said that the territory east of the Jordan between Damascus and Ma'an had been ruled as part of Faisal'sKingdom of Syria since the end of the war. Wilson said that was because it fell within the indirect sphere of Britishinfluence according to the Sykes-Picot agreement, and because the British were content with that arrangement. Theyfavoured Arab rule in the interior, because they didn't have enough troops to garrison the territory. Damascus waslocated in the French indirect sphere of influence, and the Sykes-Picot agreement called for Arab rule there too.Wilson notes that when France occupied Damascus in July 1920, the situation had changed dramatically. The Britishsuddenly wanted to know 'what is the "Syria" for which the French received a mandate at San Remo?' and 'does itinclude Transjordania?.[29] British Foreign Minister Curzon ultimately decided that it did not and that Transjordanwould remain independent, but in the closest relation with Palestine.

British Mandate for Palestine 7

Aaron Klieman said that the French formed a new Damascus state after the battle of Maysalun. As a result, Curzoninstructed Vansittart (Paris) to leave the eastern boundary of Palestine undefined. On 21 March 1921, the Foreignand Colonial office legal advisers decided to introduce Article 25 into the Palestine Mandate. It was approved byCurzon on 31 March 1921, and the revised final draft of the mandate (including Transjordan) was forwarded to theLeague of Nations on 22 July 1922.[30]

Article 25 of the mandate recognised the McMahon-Hussein correspondence. It permitted the mandatory to"postpone or withhold application of such provisions of the mandate as he may consider inapplicable to the existinglocal conditions" in that region. The future Transjordan had been part of the Syrian administrative unit under theOttomans. It was part of the captured territory placed under the Allied Occupied Enemy Territory Administration(OETA).[31] [32]

At the Battle of Maysalun on 23 July 1920, the French removed the newly-proclaimed nationalist government ofHashim al-Atassi and expelled King Faisal from Syria. British Foreign Secretary Earl Curzon wrote to the HighCommissioner, Herbert Samuel, in August 1920, stating, "I suggest that you should let it be known forthwith that inthe area south of the Sykes-Picot line, we will not admit French authority and that our policy for this area to beindependent but in closest relations with Palestine."[33] Samuel replied to Curzon, "After the fall of Damascus afortnight ago...Sheiks and tribes east of Jordan utterly dissatisfied with Shareefian Government most unlikely wouldaccept revival"[34] and subsequently announced that Transjordan was under British Mandate.[35] Without authorityfrom London, Samuel then visited Transjordan and at a meeting with 600 leaders in Salt, announced theindependence of the area from Damascus and its absorption into the mandate, quadrupling the area under his controlby tacit capitulation. Samuel assured his audience that Transjordan would not be merged with Palestine.[35] Theforeign secretary, Lord Curzon, repudiated Samuel's action.[36]

The Cairo Conference was convened by Winston Churchill, then Britain's Colonial Secretary, to resolve the problem.With the mandates of Palestine and Iraq awarded to Britain, Churchill wished to consult with Middle East experts.At his request, Gertrude Bell, Sir Percy Cox, T. E. Lawrence, Sir Kinahan Cornwallis, Sir Arnold T. Wilson, Iraqiminister of war Jaʿfar alAskari, Iraqi minister of finance Sasun Effendi (Sasson Heskayl), and others gathered inCairo, Egypt, in March 1921. The outstanding question was the policy to be adopted in Transjordan to preventanti-French military actions from being launched within the allied British zone of influence. The Hashemites wereAssociated Powers during the war, and a peaceful solution was urgently needed.The two most significant decisions of the conference were to offer the throne of Iraq to Emir Faisal ibn Hussein(who became Faisal I of Iraq) and an emirate of Transjordan (now Jordan) to his brother Abdullah ibn Hussein (whobecame Abdullah I of Jordan). Transjordan was to be constituted as an Arab province of Palestine. The conferenceprovided the political blueprint for British administration in both Iraq and Transjordan, and in offering these tworegions to the sons of Sharif Hussein ibn Ali of the Hedjaz, Churchill believed that the spirit, if not the letter, ofBritain's wartime promises to the Arabs might be fulfilled.After further discussions between Churchill and Abdullah in Jerusalem, it was mutually agreed that Transjordan wasaccepted into the mandatory area with the proviso that it would be, initially for six months, under the nominal rule ofthe Emir Abdullah and would not form part of the Jewish national home to be established west of the RiverJordan.[37] [38]

That agreement was formalised before the mandate officially went into effect. An article was included in theMandate for Palestine which allowed the UK to postpone or withhold unspecified provisions from the lands whichlay to the east of the Jordan River.[39] On 16 September 1922, the League of Nations approved a Britishmemorandum detailing its intended implementation of that clause, namely to exclude Transjordan from the articlesrelated to Jewish settlement.[40] [41]

From that point onwards, Britain administered the 23% west of the Jordan as "Palestine", and the 77% east of the Jordan as "Transjordan." The subsequent two mandates were administrated under one single British Foreign Office High Commissioner which does not prejudice or vacate the international principle whereof official League of

British Mandate for Palestine 8

Nations documents referred to them as if they were two separate mandates. Transfer of authority to an Arabgovernment took place gradually in Transjordan, starting with the recognition of a local administration in 1923 andtransfer of most administrative functions in 1928. The status of the mandate was not altered by the agreementbetween the United Kingdom and the Emirate concluded on 20 February 1928.[42] [43] It recognised the existence ofan independent government in Transjordan and defined and limited its powers. The ratifications were exchanged on31 October 1929."[44] Britain retained mandatory authority over the region until it became independent as theHashemite Kingdom of Transjordan in 1946. The juridical status of the mandate under the Palestine MandateConvention remained unchanged pending a decision on the Palestine question by the United Nations or Transjordan'sadmission to the United Nations as an independent state. See Termination of the Mandate.

Religious and communal issuesArticle 14 of the Mandate required British to establish a commission to study, define, and determine the rights andclaims relating to the different religious communities in Palestine. This provision, which called for the creation of acommission to review the religious status quo between the religious communities, was never created.Article 15 required the mandatory administration to see to it that complete freedom of conscience and the freeexercise of all forms of worship were permitted.

Demarcation of borders

Map showing boundaries (in red) of theproposed Jewish state, as suggested bythe Zionist representatives at the 1919Paris Peace Conference, superimposed

on modern boundaries.

During and after World War I, Britain made conflicting and shiftingcommitments regarding the future division and governance of the region,including those announced in the Balfour Declaration of 1917, theSykes-Picot Agreement, the Hussein-McMahon correspondence, and theChurchill White Paper of 1922. At the San Remo conference, the boundariesof the mandated territories were not precisely defined.[15] [45]

The boundary between the British and French mandates was defined in broadterms by the Franco-British Boundary Agreement of December 1920.[46] Thatagreement placed the bulk of the Golan Heights in the French sphere. Thetreaty also established a joint commission to settle the precise border andmark it on the ground.[46] The commission submitted its final report on 3February 1922, and it was approved with some caveats by the British andFrench governments on 7 March 1923, several months before Britain andFrance assumed their Mandatory responsibilities on 29 September 1923.[47]

[48] Under the treaty, Syrian and Lebanese residents would have the samefishing and navigation rights on Lake Hula, Lake Tiberias, and the JordanRiver as citizens of the Palestine Mandate, but the government of Palestinewould be responsible for policing of the lakes. The Zionist movementpressured the French and British to include as much water sources as possibleto Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. These constant demandsinfluenced the negotiators and finally led to the inclusion of the whole Sea ofGalilee, both sides of the Jordan river, Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of theYarmouk. The High Commissioner of Palestine, Herbert Samuel, haddemanded full control of the Sea of Galilee.[49] The new border followed a10-meter wide strip along the northeastern shore.[50]

Following the settlement of the border issue, the British and French governments signed on 2 February 1926 anAgreement of good neighbourly Relations between the mandated territories of Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.[51]

British Mandate for Palestine 9

Drafting of the mandateThe British Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, together with the Italian and French governments rejected early draftsof the mandate because it had contained a passage which read: "Recognizing, moreover, the historical connection ofthe Jewish people with Palestine and the claim which this gives them to reconstitute it their national home..."The Palestine Committee set up by the Foreign Office recommended that the reference to 'the claim' be omitted. TheAllies had already noted the historical connection in the Treaty of Sèvres, but they had recognised no legal claim.They felt that whatever might be done for the Jewish people was based entirely on sentimental grounds. Further, theyfelt that all that was necessary was to make room for Zionists in Palestine, not that they should turn 'it', that is thewhole country, into their home.Lord Balfour suggested an alternative which was accepted.

Whereas recognition has thereby [i.e. by the Treaty of Sèvres] been given to the historical connection ofthe Jewish people with Palestine, and to the [sentimental] grounds for reconstituting their NationalHome in that country ...[52]

The Vatican, the Italian, and the French governments continued to press their own legal claims on the basis of theformer Protectorate of the Holy See and the French Protectorate of Jerusalem. The idea of an InternationalCommission to resolve claims on the Holy Places had been formalised in Article 95 of the Treaty of Sèvres, andtaken up again in article 14 of the Palestinian Mandate. Negotiations concerning the formation and the role of thecommission were partly responsible for the delay in ratifying the mandate. The UK assumed responsibility for theHoly Places under Article 13 of the mandate. However, it never created the Commission on Holy Places to resolvethe other claims in accordance with Article 14 of the mandate.[53]

The High Commissioner established the authority of the Orthodox Rabbinate over the members of the Jewishcommunity and retained a modified version of the old Ottoman Millet system. Formal recognition was extended toeleven religious communities, which did not include the non-Orthodox Jewish or Protestant Christian denominations.

League of Nations ratificationThe San Remo conference[54] assigned the mandate for Palestine to the United Kingdom under Article 22 of theCovenant of the League of Nations. The Allies also decided to make the UK responsible for putting into effect itsown Balfour Declaration of 1917. In June 1922, the League of Nations approved the terms of the mandate, with thestipulation that they would not come into effect until a dispute between France and Italy over the Syria Mandate wassettled. That issue was resolved in September 1923. The Council of the League of Nations determined that the twomandates had come into effect at its meeting of 29 September 1923.[55]

United States legal rights in PalestineThe United States was not a member of the League of Nations, and consequently was not required to officially stateits position on the legality of the Palestinian Mandate. However, the US government accepted the de facto, if not dejure, status of the mandates and entered into individual treaties with the mandatory power to secure legal rights forits citizens and to protect property rights and business interests in the mandates. In the case of Palestine, on 3December 1924, it entered into a bilateral treaty with Britain in the Palestine Mandate Convention, in which theUnited States "consents to the administration" (Article 1) and which dealt with eight issues of concern to the UnitedStates.[56] [57]

British Mandate for Palestine 10

Jewish national homeIn 1919 the General Secretary (and future President) of the Zionist Organization, Nahum Sokolow, published aHistory of Zionism (1600–1918). He also represented the Zionist Organization at the Paris Peace Conference.

“The object of Zionism is to establish for the Jewish people a home in Palestine secured by public law." ... ...It has been said and is still beingobstinately repeated by anti-Zionists again and again, that Zionism aims at the creation of an independent "Jewish State" But this is fallacious.The "Jewish State" was never part of the Zionist programme. The Jewish State was the title of Herzl's first pamphlet, which had the suprememerit of forcing people to think. This pamphlet was followed by the first Zionist Congress, which accepted the Basle programme – the onlyprogramme in existence. ”

—Nahum Sokolow, History of Zionism[58]

The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine said the Jewish National Home, which derived from theformulation of Zionist aspirations in the 1897 Basle program has provoked many discussions concerning itsmeaning, scope and legal character, especially since it had no known legal connotation and there are no precedents ininternational law for its interpretation. It was used in the Balfour Declaration and in the Mandate, both of whichpromised the establishment of a "Jewish National Home" without, however, defining its meaning. A statement on"British Policy in Palestine," issued on 3 June 1922 by the Colonial Office, placed a restrictive construction upon theBalfour Declaration. The statement included "the disappearance or subordination of the Arabic population, languageor customs in Palestine" or "the imposition of Jewish nationality upon the inhabitants of Palestine as a whole", andmade it clear that in the eyes of the mandatory Power, the Jewish National Home was to be founded in Palestine andnot that Palestine as a whole was to be converted into a Jewish National Home. The Committee noted that theconstruction, which restricted considerably the scope of the National Home, was made prior to the confirmation ofthe Mandate by the Council of the League of Nations and was formally accepted at the time by the Executive of theZionist Organization.[59]

The League of Nations Permanent Mandates Commission took the position that the Mandate contained a dualobligation. In 1932 the Mandates Commission questioned the representative of the Mandatory on the demands madeby the Arab population regarding the establishment of self-governing institutions, in accordance with various articlesof the mandate, and in particular Article 2. The Chairman noted that "under the terms of the same article, themandatory Power had long since set up the Jewish National Home."[60]

In March 1930 Lord Passfield, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, had written a Cabinet Paper[61] which said:In the Balfour Declaration there is no suggestion that the Jews should be accorded a special or favouredposition in Palestine as compared with the Arab inhabitants of the country, or that the claims ofPalestinians to enjoy self-government (subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistanceby a Mandatory as foreshadowed in Article XXII of the Covenant) should be curtailed in order tofacilitate the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people." ... Zionist leadershave not concealed and do not conceal their opposition to the grant of any measure of self-governmentto the people of Palestine either now or for many years to come. Some of them even go so far as to claimthat that provision of Article 2 of the Mandate constitutes a bar to compliance with the demand of theArabs for any measure of self-government. In view of the provisions of Article XXII of the Covenantand of the promises made to the Arabs on several occasions that claim is inadmissible.

In 1937 a British Royal Commission headed by Lord Peel proposed solving the Arab-Jewish conflict by partitioningPalestine into two states. The Jewish leadership rejected the plan and developed an alternate proposal.[62] The USConsul General at Jerusalem told the State Department that the Mufti had refused the principle of partition anddeclined to consider it. The Consul said that the Emir Abdullah urged acceptance on the ground that realities must befaced, but wanted modification of the proposed boundaries and Arab administrations in the neutral enclave. TheConsul also noted that Nashashibi side-stepped the principle, but was willing to negotiate for favourablemodifications.[63]

British Mandate for Palestine 11

A collection of private correspondence published by David Ben Gurion contained a letter written in 1937 whichexplained that he was in favour of partition because he didn't envision a partial Jewish state as the end of the process.Ben Gurion wrote "What we want is not that the country be united and whole, but that the united and whole countrybe Jewish." He explained that a first-class Jewish army would permit Zionists to settle in the rest of the country withor without the consent of the Arabs.[64] Benny Morris said that both Chaim Weizmann and David Ben Gurion sawpartition as a stepping stone to further expansion and the eventual takeover of the whole of Palestine.[65] FormerIsraeli Foreign Minister and historian Schlomo Ben Ami writes that 1937 was the same year that the "FieldBattalions" under Yitzhak Sadeh wrote the "Avner Plan", which anticipated and laid the groundwork for what wouldbecome in 1948, Plan D. It envisioned going far beyond any boundaries contained in the existing partition proposalsand planned the conquest of the Galilee, the West Bank, and Jerusalem.[66]

In 1942 the Biltmore Program was adopted as the platform of the World Zionist Organization. It demanded "thatPalestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth." In 1946 an Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, alsoknown as the Grady-Morrison Committee, noted that the demand for a Jewish State went beyond the obligations ofeither the Balfour Declaration or the Mandate and had been expressly disowned by the Chairman of the JewishAgency as recently as 1932.[67] The Jewish Agency subsequently refused to accept the Grady Morrison Plan as thebasis for discussion. A spokesman for the agency, Eliahu Epstein, told the US State Department that the Agencycould not attend the London conference if the Grady-Morrison proposal was on the agenda. He stated that theAgency was unwilling to be placed in a position where it might have to compromise between the Grady-Morrisonproposals on the one hand and its own partition plan on the other. He stated that the Agency had accepted partition asthe solution for Palestine which it favoured.[68]

Palestine under the Mandate

From military to civil administration

The arrival of Sir Herbert Samuel. From left toright: Col. T. E. Lawrence, Emir Abdullah, Air

Marshal Sir Geoffrey Salmond, and SirWyndham Deedes and others

Following its occupation by British troops in 1917–1918, Palestinewas governed by the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration. InJuly 1920, the military administration was replaced by a civilianadministration headed by a High Commissioner.[69] The first HighCommissioner, Herbert Samuel, arrived in Palestine on 20 June 1920,to take up his appointment from 1 July. Samuel continued in officewhen the mandate commenced in 1923.

In October 1923, Britain provided the League with a report on theadministration of Palestine for the period 1920–1922, which coveredthe period before the mandate.[70]

British Mandate for Palestine 12

Arab political rights

A Palestinian passport from the era of BritishMandate of Palestine

The resolution of the San Remo Conference contained a safeguardingclause for the existing rights of the non-Jewish communities. Theconference accepted the terms of the Mandate with reference toPalestine, on the understanding that there was inserted in theprocess-verbal a legal undertaking by the Mandatory Power that itwould not involve the surrender of the rights hitherto enjoyed by thenon-Jewish communities in Palestine.[71] The draft mandates forMesopotamia and Palestine, and all of the post-war peace treatiescontained clauses for the protection of religious groups and minorities.The mandates invoked the compulsory jurisdiction of the PermanentCourt of International Justice in the event of any disputes.[72]

Article 62 (LXII) of the Treaty of Berlin, 13 July 1878[73] dealt withreligious freedom and civil and political rights in all parts of theOttoman Empire.[74] The guarantees have frequently been referred toas "religious rights" or "minority rights". However, the guaranteesincluded a prohibition against discrimination in civil and politicalmatters. Difference of religion could not be alleged against any personas a ground for exclusion or incapacity in matters relating to theenjoyment of civil or political rights, admission to publicemployments, functions, and honours, or the exercise of the various professions and industries, "in any localitywhatsoever."

A legal analysis performed by the International Court of Justice noted that the Covenant of the League of Nationshad provisionally recognised the communities of Palestine as independent nations. The mandate simply marked atransitory period, with the aim and object of leading the mandated territory to become an independent self-governingState.[75] Judge Higgins explained that the Palestinian people are entitled to their territory, to exerciseself-determination, and to have their own State."[76] The Court said that specific guarantees regarding freedom ofmovement and access to the Holy Sites contained in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) had been preserved under the termsof the Palestine Mandate and a chapter of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine.[77]

Stamp from Palestine, 10 mils, circa 1928

According to historian Rashid Khalidi, the mandate ignored thepolitical rights of the Arabs.[78] The Arab leadership repeatedly pressedthe British to grant them national and political rights, such asrepresentative government, over Jewish national and political rights inthe remaining 23% of the Mandate of Palestine which the British hadset aside for a Jewish homeland. The Arabs reminded the British ofPresident Wilson's Fourteen Points and British promises during theFirst World War. The British however made acceptance of the terms ofthe mandate a precondition for any change in the constitutionalposition of the Arabs. A legislative council was proposed in ThePalestine Order in Council, of 1922 [79] which implemented the termsof the mandate. It stated that: "No Ordinance shall be passed whichshall be in any way repugnant to or inconsistent with the provisions ofthe Mandate." For the Arabs, this was unacceptable, as they felt thatthis would be "self murder".[80] During the whole interwar period, the

British Mandate for Palestine 13

British, appealing to the terms of the mandate, which they had designed themselves, rejected the principle ofmajority rule or any other measure that would give an Arab majority control over the government of Palestine.[81]

The terms of the mandate required the establishment of self-governing institutions in both Palestine and Transjordan.In 1947 Foreign Secretary Bevin admitted that during the previous twenty-five years the British had done, their bestto further the legitimate aspirations of the Jewish communities without prejudicing the interests of the Arabs, but hadfailed to "secure the development of self-governing institutions" in accordance with the terms of the Mandate.[82]

The Jewish Yishuv

Supreme Military Tribunal of the British Mandate,Kiryat Shmuel, Jerusalem

During the Mandate, the Yishuv or Jewish community inPalestine, grew from one-sixth to almost one-third of thepopulation. According to official records, 367,845 Jews and33,304 non-Jews immigrated legally between 1920 and 1945.[83] Itwas estimated that another 50–60,000 Jews and a small number ofnon-Jews immigrated illegally during this period.[84] Immigrationaccounted for most of the increase of Jewish population, while thenon-Jewish population increase was largely natural.[85]

Initially, Jewish immigration to Palestine met little oppositionfrom the Palestinian Arabs. However, as anti-Semitism grew inEurope during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Jewishimmigration (mostly from Europe) to Palestine began to increasemarkedly, creating much Arab resentment. The British government placed limitations on Jewish immigration toPalestine. These quotas were controversial, particularly in the latter years of British rule, and both Arabs and Jewsdisliked the policy, each for its own reasons. In response to numerous Arab attacks on Jewish communities, theHaganah, a Jewish paramilitary organisation, was formed on 15 June 1920 to defend Jewish residents. Tensions ledto widespread violent disturbances on several occasions, notably in 1921 (see Jaffa riots), 1929 (primarily violentattacks by Arabs on Jews—see 1929 Hebron massacre) and 1936–1939. Beginning in 1936, Jewish groups such asEtzel (Irgun) and Lehi (Stern Gang) conducted campaigns of violence against British military and Arab targets.

Infrastructure and development

YMCA in Jerusalem, built during the BritishMandate

Between 1922 and 1947, the annual growth rate of the Jewish sector ofthe economy was 13.2%, mainly due to immigration and foreigncapital, while that of the Arab was 6.5%. Per capita, these figures were4.8% and 3.6% respectively. By 1936, the Jewish sector had eclipsedthe Arab one, and Jewish individuals earned 2.6 times as much asArabs.[86] Compared to other Arab countries, the Palestinian Arabindividuals earned slightly more.[87] In terms of human capital, therewas a huge difference. For instance, the literacy rates in 1932 were86% for the Jews against 22% for the Palestinian Arabs, but Arabliteracy was steadily increasing. In this respect, the Palestinian Arabscompared favourably to Egypt and Turkey, but unfavourably toLebanon.[88] On the scale of the UN Human Development Indexdetermined for around 1939, of 36 countries, Palestinian Jews were placed 15th, Palestinian Arabs

British Mandate for Palestine 14

"Bevingrad" in Jerusalem, Russian Compound behindbarbed wire

30th, Egypt 33rd and Turkey 35th.[89] The Jews in Palestine weremainly urban, 76.2% in 1942, while the Arabs were mainly rural,68.3% in 1942.[90] Overall, Khalidi concludes that PalestinianArab society, while overmatched by the Yishuv, was as advancedas any other Arab society in the region and considerably more thanseveral.[91]

Under the British Mandate, the country developed economicallyand culturally. In 1919 the Jewish community founded acentralised Hebrew school system, and the following yearestablished the Assembly of Representatives, the Jewish NationalCouncil and the Histadrut labour federation. The Technionuniversity was founded in 1924, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1925.[92]

Palestinian Arab leadershipUnder the British Mandate, the office of “Mufti of Jerusalem”, traditionally limited in authority and geographicalscope, was refashioned into that of “Grand Mufti of Palestine”. Furthermore, a Supreme Muslim Council (SMC) wasestablished and given various duties, such as the administration of religious endowments and the appointment ofreligious judges and local muftis. In Ottoman times, these duties had been fulfilled by the bureaucracy in Istanbul.[93]

In dealings with the Palestinian Arabs, the British negotiated with the elite rather than the middle or lowerclasses.(Khalidi 2006, p. 52) They chose Hajj Amin al-Husayni to become Grand Mufti, although he was young andhad received the fewest votes from Jerusalem’s Islamic leaders.(Khalidi 2006, pp. 56–57) One of the mufti's rivals,Raghib Bey al-Nashashibi, had already been appointed mayor of Jerusalem in 1920, replacing Musa Kazim, whomthe British removed after the Nabi Musa riots of 1920,[94] [95] during which he exhorted the crowd to give their bloodfor Palestine.[96] During the entire Mandate period, but especially during the latter half, the rivalry between the muftiand al-Nashashibi dominated Palestinian politics. Khalidi ascribes the failure of the Palestinian leaders to enroll masssupport, because of their experiences during the Ottoman Empire period, as they were then part of the ruling eliteand accustomed to their commands being obeyed. The idea of mobilising the masses was thoroughly alien tothem.(Khalidi 2006, p. 81)There had already been rioting and attacks on and massacres of Jews in 1921 and 1929. During the 1930s,Palestinian Arab popular discontent with Jewish immigration grew. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, severalfactions of Palestinian society, especially from the younger generation, became impatient with the internecinedivisions and ineffectiveness of the Palestinian elite and engaged in grass-roots anti-British and anti-Zionist activism,organised by groups such as the Young Men's Muslim Association. There was also support for the radical nationalistIndependence Party (Hizb al-Istiqlal), which called for a boycott of the British in the manner of the Indian CongressParty. Some took to the hills to fight the British and the Zionists. Most of these initiatives were contained anddefeated by notables in the pay of the Mandatory Administration, particularly the mufti and his cousin Jamalal-Husayni. A six-month general strike in 1936 marked the start of the great Palestinian Revolt.[97]

British Mandate for Palestine 15

United Nations partition plan

The UN Partition Plan

The British Peel Commission had proposed a Palestine dividedbetween a Jewish state and an Arab state. But in the 1939 WhitePaper Britain changed its position and sought to limit Jewishimmigration from Europe. This was seen by Zionists and theirsympathisers as betrayal of the terms of the mandate, especially inlight of the increasing persecution of Jews in Europe. In response,Zionists organised Aliyah Bet, a program of illegal immigrationinto Palestine. Lehi, a small group of extreme Zionists, stagedarmed attacks on British authorities in Palestine. However, theJewish Agency, which represented the mainstream Zionistleadership, still hoped to persuade Britain to allow resumed Jewishimmigration, and cooperated with Britain in World War II.

The Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry in 1946 was a jointattempt by Britain and the United States to agree on a policyregarding the admission of Jews to Palestine. In April, theCommittee reported that its members had arrived at a unanimousdecision. The Committee approved the American recommendationof the immediate acceptance of 100,000 Jewish refugees fromEurope into Palestine. It also recommended that there be no Arab,and no Jewish State. The Committee stated that "in order todispose, once and for all, of the exclusive claims of Jews andArabs to Palestine, we regard it as essential that a clear statementof principle should be made that Jew shall not dominate Arab andArab shall not dominate Jew in Palestine." U.S. President Harry S.

Truman angered the British Labour Party by issuing a statement supporting the 100,000 refugees but refusing toacknowledge the rest of the committee's findings. Britain had asked for U.S assistance in implementing therecommendations. The U.S. War Department had said earlier that to assist Britain in maintaining order against anArab revolt, an open-ended U.S. commitment of 300,000 troops would be necessary. The immediate admission of100,000 new Jewish immigrants would almost certainly have provoked an Arab uprising.[98]

These events were the decisive factors that forced Britain to announce their desire to terminate the Palestine Mandateand place the Question of Palestine before the United Nations, the successor to the League of Nations. The UNcreated UNSCOP (the UN Special Committee on Palestine) on 15 May 1947, with representatives from 11 countries.UNSCOP conducted hearings and made a general survey of the situation in Palestine, and issued its report on 31August. Seven members (Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, and Uruguay)recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states, with Jerusalem to be placed under internationaladministration. Three members (India, Iran, and Yugoslavia) supported the creation of a single federal statecontaining both Jewish and Arab constituent states. Australia abstained. On 29 November, the UN GeneralAssembly voted 33 to 13, with 10 abstentions, in favour of the Partition Plan, while making some adjustments to theboundaries between the two states proposed by it. The division was to take effect on the date of British withdrawal.It is important to note that the UN General Assembly is only granted the power to make recommendations, therefore,UNGAR 181 was not legally binding.[99] Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union supported the resolution. Haiti, Liberia,and the Philippines changed their votes at the last moment after concerted pressure from the U.S. and from Zionistorganisations.[100] [101] [102] The five members of the Arab League who were voting members at the time votedagainst the Plan.

British Mandate for Palestine 16

The Jewish Agency, which was the Jewish state-in-formation, accepted the plan, and nearly all the Jews in Palestinerejoiced at the news. Israeli history books mention 29 November as the most important date in the creation of Israelas it refers to UNGA 181 of 1947 Partition of the Mandate of Palestine into two states and whereof Israel'sProclamation of Independence refers to UNGA 181 as its source of sovereignty in Ph's 9 & 15.The partition plan was rejected out of hand by Palestinian Arab leaders and by most of the Arab population. Meetingin Cairo in November and December 1947, the Arab League then adopted a series of resolutions aimed at a militarysolution to the conflict.Britain announced that it would accept the partition plan, but refused to enforce it, arguing it was not acceptable toboth sides. Britain also refused to share the administration of Palestine with the UN Palestine Commission during thetransitional period. In September 1947, the British government announced that the Mandate for Palestine would endat midnight on 14 May 1948.[103] [104] [105]

Some Jewish organizations also opposed the proposal. Irgun leader Menachem Begin announced: "The partition ofthe homeland is illegal. It will never be recognised. The signature by institutions and individuals of the partitionagreement is invalid. It will not bind the Jewish people. Jerusalem was and will for ever be our capital. The Land ofIsrael will be restored to the people of Israel. All of it. And for ever." These views were publicly rejected by themajority of the nascent Jewish state.

Termination of the MandateThe Yalta Conference mentioned that mandates should be placed under United Nations trusteeship. The JewishAgency knew the United Nations Charter would say something on those subjects. The Agency wrote a memo to theSan Francisco Conference requesting a safeguarding clause that said no trusteeship agreement could alter the Jewishright to nationhood secured by the Balfour Declaration and the Palestine Mandate. The conference implicitly rejectedthat suggestion by stipulating in article 80 of the Charter that a trusteeship agreement could in fact alter amandate.[106] The negotiating history of Article 80 of the UN Charter recorded in the Foreign Relations of the UnitedStates, indicates that it was developed as a "status quo" agreement with respect to the Palestine mandate. It wasincluded at the insistence of the Arab League, who were afraid the 1939 White Paper policy would be relaxed.[107]

When the UK announced plans for Transjordanian independence, the final Assembly of the League of Nations andthe General Assembly both adopted resolutions which indicated support for the proposal. However, the JewishAgency and many legal scholars raised objections. Duncan Hall said that each mandate was in the nature of a treaty,and that being treaties, the mandates could not be amended unilaterally.[108] John Marlowe noted that despiteTransjordan's theoretical independence as conferred by the 1946 Treaty, the Arab Legion continued to be used, undernominal Transjordanian but actual British command, for police duties and for frontier control in Palestine.[109] TheJewish Agency spokesmen said that Transjordan was an integral part of Palestine, and that according to Article 80 ofthe UN Charter, the Jewish people had a secured interest in its territory.[110]

The Anglo-American treaty, also known as the Palestine Mandate Convention, permitted the US to delay anyunilateral British action to terminate the mandate. The earlier proclamation of the independence of Syria andLebanon had said "the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as itresults from the Mandate Act. Indeed, this situation could be changed only with the agreement of the Council of theLeague of Nations, with the consent of the Government of the United States, a signatory of the Franco-AmericanConvention of 4 April 1924".[111]

The U.S. adopted the policy that formal termination of the mandate with respect to Transjordan would follow the earlier precedent established by the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. That meant termination would generally be recognised upon the admission of Transjordan into the United Nations as a fully independent country.[112] Members of the U.S. Congress introduced resolutions demanding that the U.S. Representative to the United Nations be instructed to seek postponement of any international determination of the status of Transjordan until the future status of Palestine as a whole was determined. The U.S. State Department also received a long

British Mandate for Palestine 17

detailed legal argument from Rabbis Wise and Silver objecting to the independence of Transjordan.[113]

In 1946 Transjordan applied for membership in the United Nations. The President of the Security Council, speakingin his capacity as the representative of Poland, said that Transjordan was part of a joint Mandate. He denied that theMandate had been legally terminated and asserted the rights and obligations of the United Nations. He mentionedthat US Secretary of State Byrnes had spoken out against premature recognition of Transjordan, and he added thatthe application should not be considered until the question of Palestine as a whole was addressed.[114] Transjordan'sapplication for UN membership was not approved. At the 1947 Pentagon Conference, the USA advised the UK itwas withholding recognition of Transjordan pending a decision on the Palestine question by the United Nations.[115]

During the General Assembly deliberations on Palestine, there were suggestions that it would be desirable toincorporate part of Transjordan's territory into the proposed Jewish state. A few days before 29 November 1947decision on partition, U.S. Secretary of State Marshall noted frequent references had been made by the Ad HocCommittee regarding the desirability of the Jewish State having both the Negev and an "outlet to the Red Sea and thePort of Aqaba."[116] According to John Snetsinger, Chaim Weizmann visited President Truman on 19 November1947 and said it was imperative that the Negev and Port of Aqaba be under Jewish control and that they be includedin the Jewish state.[117] Truman telephoned the US delegation to the UN and told them he supported Weizmann'sposition.[118]

The British had notified the U.N. of their intent to terminate the mandate not later than 1 August 1948,[119] However,early in 1948, the United Kingdom announced its firm intention to end its mandate in Palestine on May 14. Inresponse, President Harry S. Truman made a statement on March 25 proposing UN trusteeship rather than partition,stating that "unfortunately, it has become clear that the partition plan cannot be carried out at this time by peacefulmeans... unless emergency action is taken, there will be no public authority in Palestine on that date capable ofpreserving law and order. Violence and bloodshed will descend upon the Holy Land. Large-scale fighting among thepeople of that country will be the inevitable result."[120]

The Jewish Leadership led by future Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, declared independence on the afternoon ofFriday, May 14, 1948 (5 Iyar 5708 (Hebrew calendar date), with the declaration to become effective from the end ofthe Mandate at midnight of that day.[121] [122] The State of Israel declared itself as an independent nation, and wasquickly recognised by the Soviet Union, the United States, and many other countries, but not by the surroundingArab states. Over the next few days, approximately 700 Lebanese, 1,876 Syrian, 4,000 Iraqi, 2,800 Egyptian troopsinvaded Palestine.[123] Around 4,500 Transjordanian troops, commanded by 38 British officers who had resignedtheir commissions in the British army only weeks earlier (commanded by General Glubb), invaded the Corpusseparatum region encompassing Jerusalem and its environs (in response to the Haganah's Operation Kilshon[124] ), aswell as areas designated as part of the Arab state by the UN partition plan. On the date of British withdrawal, theJewish provisional government declared the formation of the State of Israel. The partition plan required that theproposed states grant full civil rights to all people within their borders, regardless of race, religion or gender.Although Israel acknowledged that obligation, legal scholars, including Prof. James Crawford and Prof. WilliamThomas Mallison, have noted that Israel did not comply with the prescribed conditions for protection ofminorities.[125] [126]

British Mandate for Palestine 18

References[1] Palestine Royal Commission Report Presented by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to Parliament by Command of His Majesty, July

1937, Cmd. 5479 (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 88A6BF6F1BD82405852574CD006C457F). His Majesty’s Stationery Office.,London, 1937. 404 pages + maps.

[2] Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1, US State Department (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963)pp 650–652

[3] The Palestine Mandate, The Avalon Project (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 20th_century/ palmanda. asp)[4] Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ leagcov. htm#art22) and "Mandate for

Palestine," Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972[5] Tom Segev's New Mandate, [[Yehoshua Porath (http:/ / www. jewishagency. org/ JewishAgency/ English/ Jewish+ Education/ Educational+

Resources/ More+ Educational+ Resources/ Azure/ 9/ 9-porat. html. htm)]][6] The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record, by J. C. Hurewitz, 1979, Yale University Press; 2nd edition,

ISBN 0-300-02203-4, page 26, BRITISH WAR AIMS IN OTTOMAN ASIA: REPORT OF THE DE BUNSEN COMMITTEE 30 June 1915[7] See the detailed discussions set out in Balfour Declaration of 1917 and Hussein-McMahon correspondence, as well as that in the Churchill

White Paper. It is difficult to determine how much of the conflict was due to British duplicity or to the exigencies of raison d'etat, and howmuch simply to infelicitous language used by McMahon in his correspondence of 24 October 1915, particularly in the meaning of his ratherunfortunate phrase "portions of Syria lying to the west of...". In any event, without trying to assess the good faith of the British government, itis clear (as it was to the observers and participants, both within and outside of the government, at the time) that serious misunderstandings hadbeen engendered by the statements of the British government, whatever may have been their underlying intent.

[8] (Biger 2004, pp. 55, 164)[9] The others included Occupied Enemy Territories North (Lebanon) under the command of French Colonel De Piape and Occupied Enemy

Territory East (Syria and Transjordan) under the command of Faisal's chief of staff, General Ali Riza el-Riqqabi.[10] See also "The Armistice in the Middle East," in (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1G1-142205397. html)[11] Report of a Committee Set up to Consider Certain Correspondence Between [[Sir Henry McMahon (http:/ / domino. un. org/ unispal. nsf/

3d14c9e5cdaa296d85256cbf005aa3eb/ 4c4f7515dc39195185256cf7006f878c!OpenDocument)] and the Sharif of Mecca in 1915 and 1916],UNISPAL, Annex H.

[12] Allenby and British Strategy in the Middle East, 1917–1919, Matthew Hughes, Taylor & Francis, 1999, ISBN 0-7146-4473-0, page 122(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vbJWx89nJSIC& pg=PA123& dq=& client=#PPA122,M1)

[13] Pappé 1994, pp. 3–5. Pappé suggests that the French concessions were made to guarantee British support for French aims at the post-warpeace conference concerning Germany and Europe.

[14] see pages 1–10 of the minutes of the meeting of the Council of Four starting here: (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1919Parisv05& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=1)

[15] (Biger 2004, p. 173)[16] http:/ / www. mideastweb. org/ feisweiz. htm[17] Excerpts from League of Nations Official Journal dated June 1922, pp. 546–549 (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ unispal. nsf/

9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/ b08168048e277b5a052565f70058cef3?OpenDocument)[18] Palestine Papers, 1917–1922, Doreen Ingrams, 1973, George Brazziller Edition, Chapter 9, Drafting the Mandate[19] The Sykes-Picot Agreement: 1916, Avalon Project (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ mideast/ sykes. htm)[20] Foreign Relations of the United States, Statement of Emir Faisal to the Council of Ten (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/

FRUS-idx?type=turn& entity=FRUS. FRUS1919Parisv03. p0899& q1=Feisal& q2=Clemenceau)[21] DESIRES OF HEDJAZ STIR PARIS CRITICS; Arab Kingdom's Aspirations Clash With French Aims in Asia Minor (http:/ / query.

nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?_r=1& res=9805EED61039E13ABC4053DFB4668382609EDE& oref=slogin)[22] Statement of the Zionist Organization regarding Palestine, 3 February 1919 (http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/

9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/ 2d1c045fbc3f12688525704b006f29cc!OpenDocument)[23] The King-Crane Commission Report, 28 August 1919 Confidential Appendix (http:/ / www. hri. org/ docs/ king-crane/ appendix. html)[24] The Vatican and Zionism: Conflict in the Holy Land, 1895–1925, Sergio I. Minerbi, Oxford University Press, USA, 1990, ISBN

0-19-505892-5[25] 'Date on which the question of the Draft Mandate for Palestine should be placed on the Agenda of the Council' (http:/ / domino. un. org/

unispal. nsf/ 2ee9468747556b2d85256cf60060d2a6/ b08168048e277b5a052565f70058cef3!OpenDocument).[26] Douglas J. Feith et al. (1994). Israel's Legitimacy in Law and History. Center for Near East Policy. pp. 5–6 & 102. ISBN 0964014505.

"There was never any question that Britain's two mandates—for Palestine and Mesopotamia—were to be geographically contiguous. The UKhad not decided by 1920 where in the desert east of the Jordan River the boundary line between eastern Palestine and Mesopotamia should bedrawn."

[27] The Palestine Order in Council, 10 August 1922, article 11. (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/C7AAE196F41AA055052565F50054E656)

[28] Palestine and International Law, Essays on Politics and Economics, ed. Sanford R. Silverburg, McFarland, 2002, ISBN 0-7864-1191-0, page14, footnote 37

British Mandate for Palestine 19

[29] Hubert Young to Ambassador Hardinge (Paris), 27 July 1920, FO 371/5254, cited in King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan,Mary Christina Wilson, Cambridge,1988, ISBN 0-521-32421-1, page 44

[30] "Foundations of British Policy In The Arab World: The Cairo Conference of 1921", Aaron S. Klieman, Johns Hopkins, 1970, ISBN0-8018-1125-2, pages 228–234

[31] (Aruri 1972, p. 17)[32] "In a telegram to the Foreign Office summarising the conclusions of the [San Remo] conference, the Foreign Secretary, Lord Curzon, stated:

'The boundaries will not be defined in Peace Treaty but are to be determined at a later date by principal Allied Powers.' When Samuel set upthe civil mandatory government in mid-1920 he was explicitly instructed by Curzon that his jurisdiction did not include Transjordan.Following the French occupation in Damascus in July 1920, the French, acting in accordance with their wartime agreements with Britainrefrained from extending their rule south into Transjordan. That autumn Emir Faisal's brother, Abdullah, led a band of armed men north fromthe Hedjaz into Transjordan and threatened to attack Syria and vindicate the Hashemites' right to overlordship there. Samuel seized theopportunity to press the case for British control. He succeeded. In March 1921 the Colonial Secretary, Winston Churchill, visited the MiddleEast and endorsed an arrangement whereby Transjordan would be added to the Palestine mandate, with Abdullah as the emir under theauthority of the High Commissioner, and with the condition that the Jewish National Home provisions of the Palestine mandate would notapply there. Palestine, therefore, was not partitioned in 1921–1922. Transjordan was not excised but, on the contrary, added to the mandatoryarea. Zionism was barred from seeking to expand there – but the Balfour Declaration had never previously applied to the area east of theJordan. Why is this important? Because the myth of Palestine's 'first partition' has become part of the concept of 'Greater Israel' and of theideology of Jabotinsky's Revisionist movement." Wasserstein, Bernard (2004). Israel and Palestine: Why They Fight and Can They Stop?, pp.105–106.

[33] Telegram from Earl Curzon to Sir Herbert Samuel, dated 6 August 1920, in Rohan Butler et al., Documents of British Foreign Policy,1919–1939, first series volume XIII London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1963, p. 331, cited in Aruri 1972, p. 17

[34] Telegram 7 August 1920, in Rohan Butler et al., Documents of British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, first series volume XIII London: HerMajesty's Stationery Office, 1963, p. 334, in Aruri 1972, p. 18

[35] (Aruri 1972, p. 18)[36] Bernard Wasserstein, ‘Samuel, Herbert Louis, first Viscount Samuel (1870–1963)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford

University Press, September 2004; online edn, May 2006 accessed 21 April 2007 (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 35928,).[37] Palestine Papers, 1917–1922, Doreen Ingrams, George Braziller 1973 Edition, pages 116–117[38] Ian Lustick (1988). For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations. p. 37. ISBN 0876090366.[39] Article 25 of the Mandate for Palestine (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 20th_century/ palmanda. asp#art25)[40] Pappé, Ilan (2004). A History of Modern Palestine: One Land, Two Peoples. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 0521556325.[41] League of Nations Official Journal, Nov. 1922, pp. 1188–1189.[42] See League of Nations, Official Journal, 1928, p. 1574[43] Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1963) page 631[44] See 1919 Foreign Relations, vol. XIII, Paris Peace Conference (1947), p. 100. For a summary of the Agreement of 20 February 1928,

between the United Kingdom and the Emir of Transjordan, see Bentwich, "The Mandate for Transjordan", X Brit. Yb. Int'l L. (1929) 212[45] Chaim Weizmann, subsequently reported to his colleagues in London: "There are still important details outstanding, such as the actual terms

of the mandate and the question of the boundaries in Palestine. There is the delimitation of the boundary between French Syria and Palestine,which will constitute the northern frontier and the eastern line of demarcation, adjoining Arab Syria. The latter is not likely to be fixed untilthe Emir Feisal attends the Peace Conference, probably in Paris." See: 'Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine', TheTimes, Saturday, 8 May 1920; p. 15.

[46] Franco-British Convention on Certain Points Connected with the Mandates for Syria and the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia, signed23 December 1920. Text available in American Journal of International Law, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1922, 122–126.

[47] Agreement between His Majesty's Government and the French Government respecting the Boundary Line between Syria and Palestine fromthe Mediterranean to El Hámmé, Treaty Series No. 13 (1923), Cmd. 1910 (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ unts/ 60001_120000/ 20/ 29/ 00039450.pdf). Also Louis, 1969, p. 90.

[48] FSU Law (http:/ / www. law. fsu. edu/ library/ collection/ LimitsinSeas/ IBS075. pdf).[49] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jC9MbKNh8GUC& pg=PA1& dq=boundary+ palestine – (The boundaries of modern Palestine,

1840–1947, Page 130)[50] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jC9MbKNh8GUC& pg=PA1& dq=boundary+ palestine (The boundaries of modern Palestine,

1840–1947, Page 145, 150)[51] Text in League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 56, pp. 80–87.[52] Palestine Papers, 1917–1922, Doreen Ingrams, George Braziller 1973 Edition, pages 98–103[53] The End of the French Religious Protectorate in Jerusalem (1918–1924), Catherine Nicault (http:/ / bcrfj. revues. org/ document3502. html)[54] San Remo Convention (http:/ / wwi. lib. byu. edu/ index. php/ San_Remo_Convention)[55] "League of Nations Official Journal". 4. 1923. p. 1355.[56] United States Department of State / Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States, 1924 Volume II (1924) – Palestine Mandate

Convention between the United States of America and Great Britain (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1924v02& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=212) Signed at London, 3 December 1924, pp212–222.

British Mandate for Palestine 20

[57] Text of the agreement (http:/ / www. fco. gov. uk/ resources/ en/ pdf/ treaties/ TS1/ 1925/ 54)[58] See History of Zionism (1600–1918), Volume I, Nahum Sokolow, 1919 Longmans, Green, and Company, London, pages xxiv–xxv[59] See the report of the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine, UN Document A/364, 3 September 1947[60] "PERMANENT MANDATES COMMISSION MINUTES OF THE TWENTY-SECOND SESSION" (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL.

NSF/ 0/ B887C0FE3914081705256616005A499B). LEAGUE OF NATIONS. . Retrieved 8 June 2010.[61] Memorandum By The Secretary of State for the Colonies, "PALESTINE: HIGH COMMISSIONERS VIEWS ON POLICY", March 1930,

UK National Archives Cabinet Paper CAB/24/211, formerly C.P. 108 (30)[62] See Partner to Partition: The Jewish Agency's Partition Plan in the Mandate Era, by Yossi Katz, Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-7146-4846-9[63] See Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1937, The British Commonwealth, Europe, Near East and Africa Volume II,

page 894 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1937v02& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+page& page=894)

[64] See "Letters to Paula and the Children", David Ben Gurion, translated by Aubry Hodes, University of Pittsburg Press, 1971 page 153-157[65] See "Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881–1999", by Benny Morris, Knopf, 1999, ISBN 0-679-42120-3, page 138[66] See Scars of war, wounds of peace: the Israeli-Arab tragedy, By Shlomo Ben-Ami, Oxford University Press, USA, 2006, ISBN

0-19-518158-1, page 17[67] See Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry – Chapter V , the Jewish Attitude, (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 20th_century/ angch05. asp)[68] See Foreign relations of the United States, 1946, The Near East and Africa Volume VII, page 692-693[69] Official Records of the Second Session of the General Assembly, Supplement No. 11, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine,

Report to the General Assembly, Volume 1. Lake Success, NY, 1947. A/364, 3 September 1947, Chapter II.C.68., at (http:/ / domino. un. org/UNISPAL. NSF/ 9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/ 07175de9fa2de563852568d3006e10f3!OpenDocument)

[70] League of Nations, Official Journal, October 1923, p 1217.[71] See Papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States, The Paris Peace Conference, 1919, Page 94 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc.

edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1919Parisv13& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=94)[72] See Summary of the work of the League of Nations, January 1920 – March 1922, League of Nations Union, 1922, page 4 (http:/ / www.

archive. org/ details/ summaryofworkofl00leagiala)[73] See Article 62 (LXII) of the Treaty of Berlin (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ 1878berlin. html)[74] See Defending the Rights of Others, by Carol Fink, Cambridge University, 2006, ISBN 0-521-02994-5, page 28[75] See the Statement of the Principal Accredited Representative, Hon. W. Ormsby-Gore, C.330.M.222, Mandate for Palestine – Minutes of the

Permanent Mandates Commission/League of Nations 32nd session, 18 August 1937, (http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/0145a8233e14d2b585256cbf005af141/ fd05535118aef0de052565ed0065ddf7?OpenDocument)

[76] See the Judgment in "Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory" (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/docket/ files/ 131/ 1681. pdf)

[77] See paragraphs 49, 70, and 129 of the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion, Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall inthe Occupied Palestinian Territory (http:/ / www. icj-cij. org/ docket/ files/ 131/ 1671. pdf) and PAUL J. I. M. DE WAART (2005).International Court of Justice Firmly Walled in the Law of Power in the Israeli–Palestinian Peace Process. Leiden Journal of InternationalLaw, 18 , pp 467–487, doi:10.1017/S0922156505002839

[78] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 32–33)[79] http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 361eea1cc08301c485256cf600606959/ c7aae196f41aa055052565f50054e656!OpenDocument[80] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 33–34)[81] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 32, 36)[82] See Foreign relations of the United States, 1947. The Near East and Africa Volume V, page 1033[83] A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. 1.

Palestine: Govt. printer. 1946. pp. 185.[84] A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. 1.

Palestine: Govt. printer. 1946. pp. 210: "Arab illegal immigration is mainly ... casual, temporary and seasonal". pp. 212: "The conclusion isthat Arab illegal immigration for the purpose of permanent settlement is insignificant".

[85] J. McCarthy (1995). The population of Palestine: population history and statistics of the late Ottoman period and the Mandate. Princeton,N.J.: Darwin Press.

[86] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 13–14)[87] (Khalidi 2006, p. 27)[88] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 14, 24)[89] (Khalidi 2006, p. 16)[90] (Khalidi 2006, p. 17)[91] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 29–30)[92] The Jewish Community under the Mandate (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ History/ jews_mandate. html)[93] (Khalidi 2006, p. 63)[94] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 63, 69)[95] (Segev 2000, pp. 127–144)[96] (Morris 2001, p. 112)

British Mandate for Palestine 21

[97] (Khalidi 2006, pp. 87–90)[98] American Jewish History, Jeffrey S. Gurock, American Jewish Historical Society, page 243[99] Article 11 of the United Nations Charter[100] Roosevelt, Kermit (1948) "The Partition of Palestine: A lesson in pressure politics", Middle East Journal .Vol 2, pp1–16.[101] Snetsinger, John (1974) Truman, the Jewish vote, and the creation of Israel (Hoover Institution) pp 66–67.[102] Sarsar, Saliba (2004). "The question of Palestine and United States behavior at the United Nations", International Journal of Politics,

Culture and Society, Vol. 17, pp457–470.[103] "Palestine" (http:/ / school. eb. com/ eb/ article-45071). Encyclopedia Britannica Online School Edition, 2006. 15 May 2006.[104] Stefan Brooks (2008). "Palestine, British Mandate for". In Spencer C. Tucker. The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. 3. Santa

Barbara, California: ABC- CLIO. pp. 770. ISBN 978-1-85109-842-2.[105] A. J. Sherman (2001). Mandate Days: British Lives in Palestine, 1918-1948. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801866200.[106] See Jacob Robinson, Palestine and the United Nations: Prelude to a Solution, Greenwood Press, 1971 Reprint (1947), page 2-3[107] See the discussion on pages 859–860 under the heading "Palestine" in Foreign relations of the United States: diplomatic papers, 1945.

General: the United Nations Volume I (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1945v01&isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=859)

[108] See Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship, by H. Duncan Hall, Carnegie Endowment, 1948, 91–112'[109] See John Marlowe, "The Seat of Pilate; an Account of the Palestine Mandate (London: Cresset Press, 1959) page 222[110] See National Archive, Tel Aviv University, Palestine Post, "The Mandate is Indivisble", 9 April 1946 Edition, page 3 (http:/ / www. jpress.

org. il/ publications/ PPost-en. asp)[111] See Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1941. The British Commonwealth; the Near East and Africa Volume III

(1941), pages 809–810; and Statement of General de Gaulle of 29 November 1941, concerning the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, MarjorieM. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1963) 680–681

[112] See Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. The Near East and Africa Volume VII (1946), page 798 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc.edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=turn& entity=FRUS. FRUS1946v07. p0810& id=FRUS. FRUS1946v07& isize=M)

[113] See Foreign relations of the United States, 1946. General, the United Nations Volume I, (1946), 411 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1946v01& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=411)

[114] Minutes of the 57th Session of the Security Council, S/PV.57 pages 100–101 (pdf file pgs 3–4 of 52) (http:/ / doc. un. org/ DocBox/docbox. nsf/ GetAll?OpenAgent& DS=S/ PV. 57) and Elihu Lauterpacht, International Law Reports, Volume 37, Cambridge University Press,1968, ISBN 0521463823, page 496

[115] Foreign relations of the United States, 1947. The Near East and Africa, Volume V, Page 603 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1947v05& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=603)

[116] See Foreign relations of the United States, 1947. The Near East and Africa Volume V, page 1255 (http:/ / digicoll. library. wisc. edu/cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1947v05& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page& page=1255)

[117] Snetsinger, John, "Truman, the Jewish vote, and the creation of Israel, Hoover Press, 1974, ISBN 0817933913, pages 60–61, (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=JAW2aHnkL4UC& lpg=PA60& ots=5tavZv4YBA& pg=PA60#v=onepage& q& f=false)

[118] United States Department of State, Foreign relations of the United States, The Near East and Africa, Volume V (1947), page 1271, (http:/ /digicoll. library. wisc. edu/ cgi-bin/ FRUS/ FRUS-idx?type=goto& id=FRUS. FRUS1947v05& isize=M& submit=Go+ to+ page&page=1271)

[119] ' U.N. Resolution 181 (II). Future Government of Palestine, Part 1-A, Termination of Mandate, Partition and Independence (http:/ /domino. un. org/ unispal. nsf/ 561c6ee353d740fb8525607d00581829/ 7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253!OpenDocument).

[120] http:/ / www. mideastweb. org/ trusteeship. htm United States Proposal for Temporary United Nations Trusteeship for Palestine Source:Department of State Bulletin, vol. 18, No. 457, April 4, 1948, p. 451

[121] Bier, Aharon, & Slae, Bracha,For the sake of Jerusalem, Mazo Publishers, 2006, p.49[122] Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, 14 May 1948.[123] Appendix IX-B, 'The Arab Expeditionary Forces to Palestine, 15/5/48, Khalidi, 1971, p. 867.[124] Bayliss, 1999, p. 84.[125] See Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, and Stefan Talmon, eds., The Reality of International Law: Essays in Honour of Ian Brownlie (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1999) page 108[126] See Mallison's testimony during the Senate hearings on "The Colonization Of The West Bank Territories By Israel", page 50 (http:/ / www.

loc. gov/ law/ find/ hearings/ pdf/ 00139297647. pdf)

British Mandate for Palestine 22

Bibliography• Pappé, Ilan (15 August 1994). "Introduction" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zAJZCKAwtPMC&

pg=PR5& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1#PPA1,M1). The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict,1947–1951 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zAJZCKAwtPMC). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9781850438199.Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Khalidi, Rashid (2006). The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=xp3MQavDxjIC). Beacon Press. ISBN 0-8070-0308-5. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Khalidi, Rashid (2007) [1st ed. 2001]. "The Palestinians and 1948: the underlying causes of failure" (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=h3EOJGiBBpQC& pg=PR5& source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_1#PPA12,M1). In Eugene L. Rogan & Avi Shlaim. The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=h3EOJGiBBpQC) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521699341. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Khalidi, Walid (1987) [Original in 1971]. From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the PalestineProblem Until 1948 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qSpIAAAAMAAJ). Institute for Palestine Studies.ISBN 0887281559. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Morris, Benny (2001) [Original in 1999]. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1999(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZawVAQAACAAJ). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.ISBN 978-0-679-74475-7. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Aruri, Naseer Hasan (1972). Jordan: A Study in Political Development 1923–1965 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=GVaG4WGKj9MC). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9789024712175. Retrieved 2 May2009.

• Biger, Gideon (2004). The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 1840–1947 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=jC9MbKNh8GUC). London: Routledge. ISBN 9780714656540. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Louis, Wm. Roger (1969). The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 1919–1922.International Organization, 23(1), pp. 73–96.

• Segev, Tom (2001) [Original in 2000]. "Nebi Musa, 1920" (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=XvT8CWv2DakC& pg=PA127). One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under the British Mandate(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XvT8CWv2DakC). Trans. Haim Watzman. London: Henry Holt andCompany. ISBN 9780805065879. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Stein, Kenneth W. (1987) [Original in 1984]. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=hpvnNILnO3kC). University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9780807841785. Retrieved 2 May2009.

• Gilbert, Martin (1998). Israel: a history (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Wn6gAAAAMAAJ). Doubleday.ISBN 9780385404013. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

• Shapira, Anita (1992). Land and Power: The Zionist Resort to Force, 1881–1948 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=h4K06WBjCrAC). trans. William Templer. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506104-7. Retrieved 2May 2009.

• Black, Ian (1991). Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services. Morris, Benny. Grove Press.ISBN 0-8021-1159-9.

• Avneri, Aryeh L. (1984). The claim of dispossession: Jewish land-settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948 (http:/ /books. google. com/ books?id=8Teb4dKHQcoC). Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9780878559640. Retrieved 2May 2009.

• Khalaf, Issa (1991). Politics in Palestine: Arab factionalism and social disintegration, 1939–1948 (http:/ / books.google. com/ books?id=nrc3EUh9cyUC). State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780791407080. Retrieved6 May 2009.

British Mandate for Palestine 23

Further reading• Bayliss, Thomas (1999). How Israel Was Won: A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Lexington Books.

ISBN 9780739100646• Bethell, Nicholas The Palestine Triangle: the Struggle Between the British, the Jews and the Arabs, 1935–48,

London: Deutsch, 1979 ISBN 0-233-97069-X.• El-Eini, Roza I.M. (2006). Mandated landscape: British imperial rule in Palestine, 1929–1948 (http:/ / books.

google. com/ books?id=ekQOAAAAQAAJ). London: Routledge. ISBN 9780714654263. Retrieved 5 May 2009.• Katz, Shmuel (1973). Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=xp3MQavDxjIC). Bantam Books. ISBN 0-929093-13-5. Retrieved 2 May 2009.• Paris, Timothy J. (2003). Britain, the Hashemites and Arab Rule, 1920–1925: The Sherifian Solution. London:

Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5451-5• Sherman, A J (1998).Mandate Days: British Lives in Palestine, 1918–1948, Thames & Hudson. ISBN

0-8018-6620-0

External links• Resources > Modern Period > 20th Cent. > History of Israel > Building a State > British Mandate (1917–1948)

(http:/ / www. dinur. org/ resources/ resourceCategoryDisplay. aspx?categoryid=777& rsid=478) The JewishHistory Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University ofJerusalem

• Coins and Banknotes of Palestine under the British Mandate (http:/ / www. drberlin. com/ palestine)• Stamps of Palestine under the British Mandate (http:/ / www. zobbel. de/ stamp/ pal_poste. htm)• A history of Palestine, Israel and the Arab-Israeli conflict (http:/ / www. mideastweb. org/ briefhistory. htm)• An Introduction to the Israel-Palestine Conflict (http:/ / www. normanfinkelstein. com/ article. php?pg=4& ar=10)

by Norman Finkelstein• Map of Population Distribution by Ethnicity 1946 (http:/ / www. passia. org/ images/ pal_facts_MAPS/

dist_of_pop_jews_and_palestinians_1946. gif)• Population of Palestine before 1948 (http:/ / www. mideastweb. org/ palpop. htm)• Map of Land Ownership in Palestine 1945 (http:/ / domino. un. org/ maps/ m0094. jpg)• British Servicemen and Police who died 1945–1948 — Database (http:/ / www. roll-of-honour. com/ Databases/

Palestine/ index. html)• The Jewish Community under the Mandate (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ History/

jews_mandate. html) at Jewish Virtual Library.org• "Mandate Unscrambled." (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,882742,00. html). Time

Magazine. 9 July 1937. Retrieved 14 October 2009.• British Mandate of Palestine Coins (http:/ / www. chiefacoins. com/ Database/ Countries/ Palestine. htm)• British Mandate of Palestine (http:/ / histclo. com/ essay/ war/ ip/ man/ pal-man. html)

Primary sources• Yale Law School, Avalon Project, archive copy of the Palestine Mandate (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/

20th_century/ palmanda. asp)• Map of 1947 UN division (http:/ / domino. un. org/ maps/ m0103_1b. gif)

Article Sources and Contributors 24

Article Sources and ContributorsBritish Mandate for Palestine  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=436490281  Contributors: 52 Pickup, A.S. Brown, ADM, AHM, AMuseo, Aaronshavit, Abnn, Aburstein,Adam keller, Adi4094, Adimovk5, Admbws, Ahmad2099, AjaxSmack, AladdinSE, AlanBarrett, Alanstrohm, Alinor, Altmany, Amoruso, Ams80, Andre Engels, AndresHerutJaim, AndyMaybury, Anomalocaris, AnonMoos, Anthony, Antony.stubbs, Aqsalawyer, AreaMan, ArglebargleIV, Astynax, Atlantropa, Atmleb, Attilios, BD2412, BL, Balagen, Bcelik79, Beit Or, Benny K,BirgitteSB, Bitbut, Bitemerance51, Bleddynefans, Bless sins, Blue, Bobblewik, Bobby Boulders 4335, Bobo192, BomBom, Bontenbal, Borisknezevic, Brenont, Brighterorange, Bryan Derksen,Bubblegumbobby, Burgundavia, CJCurrie, CSWarren, Canadian Paul, Canihaveacookie, CapitalLetterBeginning, CasualObserver'48, Ceedjee, Chabichou29, Chamaeleon, Chesdovi, ChrisHorvath, Chrisbang, Chuck666999, Cjrother, Clarityfiend, Cognate247, ColdCase, Copytopic1, Curps, Curran1980, CygnusPius, Cyrius, DESiegel, DO'Neil, DSRH, DagosNavy, DanKeshet,Danny, Darwinek, David Shankbone, Davshul, Delirium, Delldot, Deodar, Der Eberswalder, DerBorg, Descendall, Dgl, Diderot's Ghost, Dinurcenter, Dn9ahx, Docu, Domino theory, Doright,Doron, Dpol, DruidODurham, Dspradau, Durin, Dzied Bulbash, Eaefremov, EamonnPKeane, Ed Poor, Ekko, Ekrodg, El C, Elderson, Eldrin2002, Eleland, Eliyahu S, Eliyak, Ellmist, Elockid,Emmett5, EnigmaMcmxc, Eric Kvaalen, Eric1985, Ericoides, Erik Zachte, Esprit15d, Everyking, Ewawer, Facts707, Faigl.ladislav, Falkonry, Fang Aili, Fipplet, Flewis, Flex, Former user 2,Formeruser-81, Formeruser-82, Frederico1234, GHcool, Gabbahead, Gabi S., Gaiagenesis, Gaius Cornelius, General Idea, Ghiraddje, Gilabrand, Glane23, Gnevin, Good Olfactory, Gotipe, GrafBobby, Greenshed, Greentubing, Gregalton, GregorB, Grenavitar, Gringo300, Ground Zero, Guy Peters, Haldrik, Hamster X, Harlan wilkerson, Heron, Hertz1888, Hmains, Howcheng, Hugo999,Huldra, Humus sapiens, Huntington, I dont hurt people, IRelayer, IZAK, Ian Dunster, Ian Pitchford, Ineuw, Iosef aetos, Iridescent, Itzse, Izzedine, J Di, JAWolf, JaGa, JaapBoBo, Javadane, Jayjg,Jeff3000, Jeremygbyrne, Jerome Charles Potts, Jhwheeler, Jiddisch, Jj9190, Jkliff, Jmlk17, Jnc, John Z, Johnkatz1972, Jonathan Drain, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jove Is Mad, Jpgordon, K-toff,KTo288, Kaaveh Ahangar, Kaisershatner, Keallu, Kingboyk, Kintetsubuffalo, Kjetil r, Koakhtzvigad, KrakatoaKatie, LK, Lance6Wins, Laurel Lodged, Ledenierhomme, Leifern, Lenoil,Leodude1982, Leppi, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Lisa, Ln (-x) = ln x + (pi)i, Loodog, Loreng59, Luperculus, Lusanaherandraton, Mabdul, Mackensen, Makaristos, Manway, Margr8, Marielleh,MarkAb, Markussep, Marokwitz, Marsden, MartinHarper, Mashkin, Master of Puppets, Mav, Mavaddat, Mboverload, Meco, MeeMo, Megawattbulbman, Melaen, Mellery, MeltBanana,MeteorMaker, Michael Safyan, Mido, Mike Peel, MiloKral, Minerbi, Mintguy, Mitrius, Mix321, Mkpumphrey, Mnmazur, Momoricks, Monosig, Moop stick, Morley Harper, Motacilla, MrOllie,Mustafaa, NSH001, Nableezy, Ndunruh, Netsnipe, Nettobatty, Nicepepper, Nick Number, No More Mr Nice Guy, NoCal100, Noon, Notreallydavid, Nudve, Number 57, Nymechein, Ocatecir,Ohconfucius, Ohnoitsjamie, Okedem, Olborne, Omar 180, Oncenawhile, OneVoice, Oren neu dag, OwenBlacker, Padres Hana, PalestineRemembered, Pcooch, Pearle, Penta, Persian Poet Gal,PeterK, Phatom87, Philip Baird Shearer, Pigman, Politician, Polylerus, Pplop, ProudJewNo1, Q, Quasar, R. Klöcker, RPellessier, Raazer, Ramallite, Reinyday, Remiel, Rich Farmbrough,Rjwilmsi, Rkiener, Robert1947, Robertunes, Rocvista76, Roland zh, Rolhar, Rontrigger, Rrostrom, Ryan4, SE7, Saads, Sam Hocevar, Sangil, Scarian, Schmloof, Scott Illini, SeNeKa,Sean.hoyland, Set theorist, Shandris, Shilonite, Shrike, Shrs105, SixBlueFish, Slackermonkey, SlimVirgin, Small black sun, Soman, Spoon!, St.daniel, St33lbird, StanZegel, Stephensuleeman,Steve Hart, Stevertigo, Stridskanin, Sumanch, Sundostund, Supreme Deliciousness, Sus scrofa, TOttenville8, TUF-KAT, Tallicfan20, Tarc, Telaviv1, Tewfik, The Prince Manifest,TheCuriousGnome, Theodork, Tiamut, Timotheus Canens, Tmstapf, Tobor0, Toby Bartels, TomTheHand, Tony Sidaway, Toya, Tyciol, TypoDotOrg, Türk Süvarisi, Uriber, Uriyan, VICTOR,Venture4, Victor Blacus, Vints, Volker89, Vzbs34, W00tfest99, Waterloo1974, Watsonma, Welsh, Wesley, Wikix, Wisamzaqoot, Wmelnick, Woohookitty, X201, Xavexgoem, Xchange,Yellowfiver, Ynhockey, Yoggysot, Yourfriend1, ZScarpia, ZXS9465, Zeq, Zero0000, Zhaladshar, Zibran 2, Zigger, Zleitzen, Zoe, Zsero, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, Александър, Иван Богданов, 516anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Ottoman Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ottoman_Flag.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: The originalis created by en:user:Kerem Ozcan, it was uploaded to commons by user:OttomanReference.File:Flag of Jordan.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKoppFile:Flag of Israel.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnonMoos, Bastique, Bobika, Brown spite, CaptainZizi, Cerveaugenie, Drork, Etams, Fred J, Fry1989, Geagea, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Humus sapiens, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Luispihormiguero, Madden, Neq00, NielsF, Nightstallion,Oren neu dag, Patstuart, PeeJay2K3, Pumbaa80, Ramiy, Reisio, SKopp, Sceptic, SomeDudeWithAUserName, Technion, Typhix, Valentinian, Yellow up, Zscout370, 31 anonymous editsFile:Flag of Egypt 1922.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Egypt_1922.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MysidFile:Palestine-Mandate-Ensign-1927-1948.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palestine-Mandate-Ensign-1927-1948.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:AnonMoos, Ar-ras, Fry1989, Greentubing, Homo lupus, Mattes, Obersachse, OwenBlacker, Saudijp, Siebrand, МолохFile:Palestine Mandate Seal.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palestine_Mandate_Seal.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Dn9ahx (talk). Original uploader was Dn9ahx at en.wikipediaFile:BritishMandatePalestine1920.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BritishMandatePalestine1920.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: en:User:Aiden,en:User:Ramallite and Zero0000 at en.wikipediaFile:Flag of Palestine.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Palestine.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Orionist, previous versions by Makaristos,w:User:MysidMysid, etc.File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: UnknownFile:Flag of Iraq.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Authored by User:Militaryace based on the work ofUser:HoshieImage:Sykes-Picot-1916.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sykes-Picot-1916.gif  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Ian Pitchford at en.wikipediaImage:Palestine-WW1-3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palestine-WW1-3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Department of Military Art and Engineering,at the U.S. Military Academy (West Point).Image:Ottoman surrender of Jerusalem restored.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ottoman_surrender_of_Jerusalem_restored.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: American Colony (Jerusalem)Image:FeisalPartyAtVersaillesCopy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FeisalPartyAtVersaillesCopy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:OrphanBotImage:Weizmann and feisal 1918.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Weizmann_and_feisal_1918.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Baronnet, Bontenbal,Celsius, Coyau, Fallschirmjäger, FunkMonk, G.dallorto, Martin H., Pieter Kuiper, Snowdog, Tarawneh, TheCuriousGnome, Wiggum, 4 anonymous editsImage:Faisal-Weizmann map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faisal-Weizmann_map.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Benlisquare,Briangotts, Joey-das-WBF, TimeshifterImage:Samuelarrival.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samuelarrival.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: American Colony (Jerusalem). Photo Dept., photographer.File:British Mandate Palestinian passport.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Mandate_Palestinian_passport.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: توقز ماسو

File:Stamp palestine 10 mils.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stamp_palestine_10_mils.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: David BjorgenFile:British Mandate tribunal building.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Mandate_tribunal_building.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Gilabrand at en.wikipediaFile:PikiWiki Israel 612 YMCA א.ק.מ.י..JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PikiWiki_Israel_612_YMCA_א.ק.מ.י..JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: רימז באזFile:Bevingrad2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bevingrad2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: American ColonyPhotographersImage:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UN_Partition_Plan_For_Palestine_1947.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:U.S. Central Intelligence Agency

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License 25

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