BRM 2-IND AND DED

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2005 The McGraw-Hill Com anies, Inc. All ri hts reserved.

The Art of Critical ReadingMather McCarthy


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Part 4: Reading CriticallyChapter 12: Evaluating the Evidence

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Introduction toDeductive and Inductive Reasoning

Drawing Conclusions: Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

In the final step of analyzing a selection,the reader must evaluate the soundness of the authors reasoning.

All of us draw conclusions based on what we think

is reasonable and acceptable.

Often these conclusions are based ondeductive or inductive reasoning.


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Deductive Reasoning

Demeans away from, and when we engage in deductive reasoning,

we reason away from premises to a conclusion.

Often deductive reasoning involves reasoning fromthe more general to the more specific.


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A deductive argument might have two premises and a conclusion.If both of these premises are true, must the conclusion be true?

We would have to answer yes.

Thats what makes this a valid deductive argument.

This argument is called a syllogism.A syllogism is a deductive argument that has

two premises and a conclusion.Not all deductive arguments are valid.

A deductive argument is only sound when the premises are true.

If the argument is valid and the premises are true,the conclusion must be true.

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Inductive ReasoningThe word parts for inductive are

inmeaning intoand ducmeaning to lead.

In inductive reasoning, specific examples, evidence,or propositions lead to a more general conclusion.

Inductive arguments lead to conclusions that are only probably true.

The better your information is,the more probably true your conclusion will be.

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You can now see one important difference betweendeductive and inductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning produces conclusions that are either true or false.

But inductive reasoning produces conclusionsthat are only probably true or false.

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The Scientific ProcessInductive and deductive reasoning are both involved in the scientific process.

Scientists do research, which involves collecting data and analyzing it, and then theyseek to draw a general conclusion or hypothesisfrom their research.

This process of formulating hypotheses from researchinvolves inductive reasoning.

Scientists then use deductive reasoning to test their hypotheses.

A hypothesis tells a scientist what should happenwhen the scientist collects further data or performs a further test.

If the new data or test is consistent with the hypothesis, the hypothesis is confirmed;if not, the hypothesis needs to be modified.

Scientists often have to revise their hypotheses to keep up with new research.

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Chapter 12 Test Taking TipKey Words That Often Appear in Essay Questions

Continued

Explain to make clear, to give reasons

An explanation often involves showing cause-and-effectrelationships or steps.

Illustrate to use a diagram, chart, or figure, or specific examplesto further explain something

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Interpret to say what something means

A question that asks for an interpretationusually wantsyou to state what something means to you.

What are your beliefs or feelings about the meaning ofthe material?

Be sure to back up your position with specificexamples and details.

Justify to give reasons in support of a conclusion, theory,or opinion

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List to put down your points one-by-one

You may want to number each of the points

in your list.

Outline to organize information into an outline,using headings and subheadings

Your outline should reflect the main ideasand supporting details.

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Prove to demonstrate that something is trueby means of factual evidence or logical reasoning

Relate to discuss how two or more conclusions,theories, or opinions affect each other.

Explain how one causes, limits, or develops the other.

Review usually means to summarize,but a narrower meaning of it is to analyze critically

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Summarize to put down the main points;to state briefly the key principles, facts, or ideaswhile avoiding details and personal comments

Trace to follow the course of development of somethingin a chronological or logical sequence

You will want to discuss each stage of developmentfrom beginning to end.

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