Animal Care Series:

C A R E P R A C T I C E SROILERB

California Poultry WorkgroupUniversity of California u Cooperative Extension

FOREWORD

"Broiler Care Practices" is one of a series of University of Californiapublications addressing the issue of animal care as it relates to food production inCalifornia. The information was contributed jointly by the Poultry Workgroup,Cooperative Extension and industry representatives.

"Broiler Care Practices" was edited by Carolyn Stull, Animal WelfareSpecialist, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California.

The authors include: Ralph Ernst, Poultry Specialist, Department of AvianSciences; Duncan McMartin, Extension Veterinarian, Emeritus, School of VeterinaryMedicine; Francine Bradley, Poultry Specialist, Department of Avian Sciences; DonaldBell, Poultry Specialist, Department of Avian Sciences; James Millam, AssociateProfessor, Department of Avian Sciences.

Published by the University of California, Davis; Second Edition, May1998.

The University of California, in compliance with Titles VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title IX of the Education Amendmentsof 1972, Sections 503 and 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Age Discrimination Act of 1975, does not discriminate on thebasis of race, religion, color, national origin, sex, mental or physical handicap, or age in any of its programs or activities, or with respect toany of its employment policies, practices, or procedures. Nor does the University of California discriminate on the basis of ancestry, sexualorientation, marital status, citizenship, medical condition (as defined in Section 12926 of the California Government Code) or becauseindividuals are special disabled veterans (as defined by the Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Act of 1974 and Section 12940 of theCalifornia Government Code). Inquiries regarding this policy may be addressed to the Affirmative Action Director, University of California,

Agriculture and Natural Resources, 300 Lakeside Drive, 6th Floor, Oakland, CA 94612-3560. (510)987.0097.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION........................................ 1

HATCHING AND SERVICING CHICKS...................... 2

Incubation......................................... 2Chick Processing..................................... 2Beak Trimming...................................... 3Hatchery Vaccination.................................. 3Hatchery Losses..................................... 3

BROODING AND GROWING............................... 4

Brooding Temperature................................. 4Litter............................................. 4Light for Brooding.................................... 4Chick Guards....................................... 4Feeding and Watering Procedures.......................... 5Space............................................. 5

CARE OF JUVENILE AND ADULT BREEDING STOCK.......... 6

Feeding.......................................... 6Nests............................................. 6Lighting........................................... 6Egg Care, Handling, Sanitation and Storage................... 7

ENVIRONMENT......................................... 8

Housing........................................... 8Air Quality......................................... 8Ventilation......................................... 9

HEALTH MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS....................... 10

Immunization....................................... 10Development of Immunization Programs..................... 11Cleaning and Disinfecting Houses and Equipment............... 11Preventive Medication................................. 11Farm Security....................................... 12Monitoring Mortality.................................. 12Dead Bird Disposal................................... 12

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MINIMIZING NUISANCE ASPECTS OFFARMS................. 14

Air Quality......................................... 14Manure Management and Odor Control...................... 14Fly Control......................................... 14Landscaping........................................ 14

BIRD HANDLING ANDTRANSPORTATION................... 15

Catching........................................... 15Loading........................................... 15Vehicles........................................... 16Transportation Conditions and Route....................... 16

PROCESSING........................................... 17

Unloading.......................................... 17Shackling.......................................... 17Stunning........................................... 17Slaughter.......................................... 17

BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................ 19

GLOSSARY............................................ 21

INDEX................................................ 23

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INTRODUCTION

Animal care recommendations have evolved from years of scientific research andpractical experience. This publication was designed to outline acceptable practices for thecare and rearing of meat-type chickens (rock-cornish game hens, broilers, fryers, orroasters) and breeding stock.

Poultry meat production is an important industry in California. In 1996, Californiaproduced 234 million meat chickens valued at $457 million. The majority of these meatchickens were grown on an estimated 175 ranches in the San Joaquin Valley. In addition,there are many smaller farms in California producing specialty chickens.

Poultry require constant care and attention. This care should be performed orsupervised by an experienced person. Novices who wish to raise poultry shouldfamiliarize themselves with detailed information on proper care before chicks are obtained. Help and information is available from the University of California, CooperativeExtension, experienced industry representatives, and through many books andpublications.

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HATCHING AND SERVICING CHICKS

Incubation

Proper incubation conditions arenecessary to produce healthy chicks. Optimum conditions vary with the age,shell quality and size of eggs to be set. Dry bulb temperature in forced draftincubators, should be between 99.5 and100oF (37.5 - 37.8oC) with a wet bulbtemperature of 83 to 87oF (28.3 -30.5oC). Eggs should be set large endup and turned hourly, or more often,during the first 14 days of incubation butnever after 18 days of incubation.

Hatchers, hatching trays and otherequipment should be cleaned andsanitized after each use. Nest clean eggsare preferred. They may be sanitized onthe farm or at the hatchery usingapproved procedures. Egg sanitation ismore effective if it is done as eggs arecollected or immediately after collection.

Setter and hatcher rooms requireproper ventilation (approximately one airexchange per minute) to provide oxygenand remove carbon dioxide produced bydeveloping embryos. Most commercialsetters perform best when the roomtemperature is maintained at about 78oF(25.6oC) with a relative humidity of 50 to55 percent.

Chick Processing

Chicks should always betransported in new disposable boxes withnew pads or plastic boxes which havebeen freshly cleaned, sanitized and fittedwith new pads. The boxes should have alining that provides good footing (such asexcelsior pads or absorbent mats) and beconstructed to allow adequate ventilation.The number of young in the box shouldtake into consideration the outdoortemperature and transit time. Chick

handling from hatcher tray throughservicing (sexing, beak trimming,injection, etc.) should be controlled toavoid internal or external injury.

Boxes of young chicks shouldalways be handled carefully and neverthrown or dropped. If boxes must bestacked, care should be taken to insureadequate ventilation.

If chicks are to be held in thehatchery, they should be placed in wellventilated rooms held at no less than 74oF(23.3oC) and 55 percent relativehumidity. An air exchange of 25 cubicfeet per minute (cfm) per 1000 chicks isrecommended.

Prior to hatching, the chickabsorbs the remainder of the yolk sac intoits body cavity. The yolk sac contents arerich in energy and moisture and cansustain the young bird for up to 72 hours,in the absence of food and water. However, chicks should be placed onfeed and water as soon as possible afterhatch.

Chick delivery vehicles should beproperly ventilated to control temperatureand humidity, and to remove carbondioxide and provide oxygen

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(ventilation capacity 25 cfm/1,000chicks). Chick deliveries should bescheduled early in the morning during hotweather to minimize heat stress wheneverpossible. Heat stress during loading andunloading of chicks can be critical. Delivery trucks should be cleaned andsanitized after each delivery.

Beak Trimming

Many meat type strains arenon-aggressive and do not require beaktrimming. Beak trimming in the hatcheryprotects chicks from cannibalism later inlife. If beaks are to be trimmed, a hotblade trimmer with a blunt blade shouldbe used to notch the upper beak. By 10days of age the tip of the upper beak willseparate. An electric spark trimmer canalso be used. The spark arcs betweentwo electrodes and leaves a small hole inthe beak. After a few days the tip of theupper beak will separate leaving atrimmed upper beak. These methodsleave the tip of the beak intact until thechick learns to eat and drink whichreduces early stress.

Hatchery Vaccination

Vaccination in the hatchery isessential to protect meat type chickensfrom Marek's disease and sometimesother disease agents. The vaccinationprogram should be customized to protectchicks from disease agents likely to causemortality on the farm where they will begrown. Vaccines can be applied in thehatchery by injection or by spray methods(for details see HEALTHMAINTENANCE PROGRAMS page11).

Vaccines can also be appliedsuccessfully by egg injection at the timeof egg transfer from the setter to thehatcher. This procedure initiates anearlier immune response to protect chicksafter hatching.

Hatchery Losses

Unhatched eggs and cull chicksshould be humanely euthanized as soonas possible after the hatch is pulled. Carbon dioxide inhalation or macerationare acceptable methods of accomplishingthis.

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BROODING AND GROWING

Brooding Temperature

Newly hatched chicks are unableto control their body temperatures atextremely high or low ambienttemperatures and must be provided anarrow temperature range for optimumhealth and growth. At hatch, chicksrequire an ambient temperature of 85 to87oF (29.5 -30.5oC) or a cooler ambienttemperature with supplemental radiantheat. Chicks can also be raisedsuccessfully in a cool room adjacent to anarea (or hover) with a warmertemperature (95oF, 35oC at day-old). This is sometimes referred to as coolroom brooding. As chicks grow andfeather out, their ability to regulate bodytemperature improves until about sixweeks of age when they can control theirbody temperature within the rangesnormally experienced in commercialpoultry houses. Brooders should bestarted 24 hours in advance of chickarrival to warm litter and drinking water.

Litter

Chicks are often started on floorscovered by two to four inches (5-10 cm)of new litter material. Several types oflitter material can be used successfully. Wood shavings and rice hulls arepreferred but chopped straw, peanuthulls, sawdust, and other materials aresometimes used. The litter material needsto be free of chemicals, pathogens orother contaminants and should not beexcessively dusty. Materials which areabsorbent and have high insulatingqualities are preferred. Litter can bereused if the previous flock has notexperienced health problems or unusualmortality. Wet and caked areas should beremoved and new litter material added asrequired. With proper ventilation, litter

can be maintained in good condition. Iflitter cake begins to develop, it should beremoved or the litter should be stirred. Waterers are often moved at frequentintervals to avoid cake build-up.

Light For Brooding

During the first week, chicks shouldhave a minimum light intensity of 1 footcandle (10 lux). Subsequently, the lightintensity can be reduced to help controlcannibalism.

Chick Guards

Chick guards are used to closelyconfine the chicks until they learn thelocation of the heat, feed and water. Thearea within the brooder ring is graduallyincreased in size and the guard isremoved when the chicks reach 6 to 8days of age. Guards may not benecessary if chicks are started in a moreconfined area such as with partial housebrooding. Chick guards can be made ofwelded wire, metal, corrugated cardboardor any other suitable material. Guardmaterial should be 12 to 15 inches (30 to38 cm) in height and long enough

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to form an ample ring around the heatsource.

Feeding and Watering Procedures

Adequate numbers of feeders andwaterers are important during the earlylife of chicks. Water is the most criticalnutrient for the newly hatched chick. Chicks are often given water before feedto prevent dehydration and assure thatthey locate water sources. Water shouldbe in place 24 hours before chicks areintroduced so that water temperatureapproximates ambient temperature. Feedmay be introduced immediately or withina few hours of chick placement.

Feeding and watering equipmentused to start chicks must be properlysized so that chicks can eat and drinkcomfortably. The edge of the feedershould be located at the average level ofthe chicks' backs. Feed is often placedon egg flats or in plastic trays during thefirst few days to help chicks locate feed. Changes in placement of feeders shouldbe made gradually so that the chicks findthe new feeder locations.

Chickens should always begrown on diets which meet their nutrientrequirements. Guidelines for nutrientrequirements appear in the "NutrientRequirements of Poultry" as published bythe National Research Council, National

Academy of Science (1994). Feedshould contain a mold inhibitor to protectagainst mold development and anantioxidant to protect fat soluble vitaminsfrom oxidation. Prolonged storage ofmixed feeds should be avoided. Feedshould always be protected from rodentsand moisture.

Poultry are fed diets comprisedprimarily of grain, protein supplements(e.g. soybean meal), minerals, vitaminsand fat. By-product ingredients such aswheat bran, bakery byproduct meal, meatmeal or dried brewers grain aresometimes used when they are costeffective. Approved growth promoters(e.g. bacitracin) and coccidiostats may beadded to feed in small amounts. Moldinhibitors are often added to prevent thedevelopment of mycotoxins which areharmful to poultry. Hormones are notapproved for poultry and are neverincluded in the feed or water ofcommercial poultry.

Space

Space required for meat typechickens varies with their size, housingand management system. Broiler chicksshould be provided a minimum floorspace of 72 square inches (465 cm2) perbird up to 49 days of age if grown onlitter.

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CARE OF JUVENILE AND ADULT BREEDING STOCK

Care practices for replacementbreeding stock should follow the generalprinciples previously discussed for meatstock with the exceptions noted in thissection.

Feeding

To achieve successfulreproduction, meat-type breeding stockmust be raised on a feeding programwhich limits growth rate and controlsmature body weight. This requiresfeeding predetermined amounts of feedadjusted for the age, egg production,temperature and body weight of the flock.During the juvenile growing period, maleand female chicks must be housedseparately and grown on separate feedingprograms to assure proper weight forsuccessful reproduction. Samples ofmales and females should be weighed atfrequent intervals so that nutritionprograms can be adjusted to maintainappropriate body weights throughout life.When the flock approaches sexualmaturity, it should be transferred tobreeder housing with an appropriate maleto female ratio (usually about 15 malesper 100 females). In the breedingfacility, separate male and female feedersshould be used so that the body weight ofboth sexes can be controlled.

Nests

Nests for breeder hens should beproperly sized to provide a comfortableenvironment for hens to lay. If nest holesare too large, more than one hen mayattempt to enter the same nest resulting ininjury and egg damage. One nest space

should be provided for every 4 to 6 hens.The nests should be maintained withclean nest pads or nest litter. Nest boxesshould have perches in the front of thenest for safe entry.

Lighting

Developing pullets of meat-typestrains which are exposed to increasingday lengths will begin laying eggs beforethey have reached optimum body size. This can result in excessive production ofsmall eggs and these hens are moresusceptible to prolapse of the oviductwhich often leads to death. To preventthese problems, pullets should be raisedon short days (e.g., 8 hours) in adarkened house or on decreasing daylengths if housed in open-side housing. The day length should be increased toinitiate lay when adequate bodydevelopment and age have been achieved.Males should be light stimulated at least aweek before females to assure goodfertility at the start of lay.

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Lamps in breeder housing should provide aminimum light intensity of one halffoot-candle (5 lux) at the level of the feedtrough.

Hens need to receive artificial light tomaintain a day length of at least 14 hours toinitiate and maintain egg production. Thelighting system should be controlled by areliable timer which will turn the lights onand off at appropriate times. In open-sidedhouses, lights are normally used tosupplement natural day length. The lightschedule should assure that day length doesnot decrease. To achieve this, artificial daylength must exceed the longest day at thelatitude where the flock is located.

Egg Care, Handling, Sanitation and Storage

Eggs should be collected at least twotimes per day. If they are to be

sanitized, this should be done as soon aspossible after collection using an approvedprocedure. Only sound, nest-clean eggs arerecommended for hatching. If floor eggs areto be set, they should be washed using anapproved procedure, as soon as possible aftercollection and set in separate machines fromnest-clean eggs.

Eggs which are stored before settingshould be held in clean rooms at atemperature of 55 to 65oF (12.8 - 22.1oC)and 75 percent relative humidity. The highertemperature (65oF) is preferred for storage of1 to 7 days. Eggs held more than 7 days willbenefit by storing in plastic bags and turningdaily.

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ENVIRONMENT

Housing

The purpose of a poultry house isto confine birds and protect them fromenvironmental extremes which mightincrease mortality or reduce growth,immunocompetence, fertility or eggproduction. Many types of structures areused successfully and houses may beconstructed from materials which arereadily available in the area. Wood frameor steel structures are popular. Someinsulation is necessary in most climates tomaintain a suitable environment. Interiorsurfaces which can be easily sanitized arepreferred.

If environmental temperatures areexpected to exceed 90oF (32oC), someprovision is necessary for cooling. Successful systems include roofsprinkling, inside fogging, fanspositioned to move air over birds,building insulation and evaporative padcooling of incoming air. The amount ofprotection required varies with theseverity of the environment.

Air Quality

The progression in poultrymanagement from extensive to moreintensive systems has resulted inincreased bird density and concentrationof their waste products. There is thepotential for harm to both birds andworkers if airborne contaminants exceedthe limits recommended by the NationalInstitute for Occupational Safety andHealth.

Of the airborne contaminants,dust is the most obvious. Poultry housedust may be the product of feed, manure,litter, and/or dander. The CaliforniaDivision of Occupational Safety andHealth (Cal/OSHA) set permissibleexposure limits for total and respirable

"nuisance" dust at 10 and 5 mg/m3,respectively. Cal/OSHA definesnuisance dust as the total dust measured. This is an industry standard measurementthat approximates the total dust in the air.

Cal/OSHA also has establishedammonia exposure limits for workers. The 8-hour TWA (time weighted average)exposure limit for ammonia is 25 ppmand the 15-minute short term exposurelimit is 35 ppm. While Cal/OSHA doesnot have a permissible exposure limit forendotoxins (derived from bacteria),employees exposed to endotoxins anddust can develop the followingsymptoms: cough, chest tightness,diarrhea, eye irritation, fatigue, fever,headache, nasal irritation, nausea, andphlegm.

It is incumbent on the poultrymanager to manage the environment sothat dust, endotoxins, and ammonialevels are kept as low as possible. Ifthese levels cannot be kept at a minimum,efforts should be taken to reduce theemployee-exposure time and providerespiratory protection in the form of atwo-strap, OSHA-approved dust mask.

Ventilation

Ventilation is required to maintaingood air quality for poultry andappropriate litter moisture for a healthyenvironment. Air exchange is necessaryto remove carbon dioxide and ammoniafrom poultry houses and to bring inoxygen; however, removal of heat andmoisture from litter houses usuallyrequires greater air exchange thanrequired for carbon dioxide and ammoniaremoval. Long term ammonia exposureof birds should not

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exceed 10-20 ppm. If this limit isconsistently exceeded, damage will occurto lungs, trachea and eyes; young birdsare more sensitive than older birds.

Ideal moisture levels for litter are25 to 35 percent. Lower levels result inexcessive dust which is detrimental to therespiratory system. Higher moisturelevels result in excessive caking of litterwhich can contribute to breast blisters,disease problems and lameness.

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HEALTH MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS

The scientific definition of healthin an animal is the absence of disease. Bacteria-free chickens in laboratoryisolators grow approximately 15 percentfaster than similar chickens in a"conventional" environment. This idealcannot be achieved economically oncommercial farms. The use ofimmunization, sanitation, preventivemedications and biosecurity are discussedas the preferred preventives for infectiousdisease, with only occasional alternativessuch as strategic medication.

Immunization

The planned deliberate inductionof immunity is one of the most beneficialand effective management tools availablefor the prevention or suppression ofinfectious disease (as compared to thenatural induction following unpredictableexposure to field infection).

There are two types of immunity:passive or active. Passive immunityoccurs as antibody in the yolk ofdeveloping embryos; it is derived fromthe maternal bloodstream, and is presentfor 2-4 weeks in the blood of newlyhatched chicks. The presence and levelof passive immunity in the chick istherefore dependent on the presence andlevel of antibody in the maternal parent. The goal of some vaccination programs isthe production of high levels of passiveimmunity in chicks, e.g., for avianencephalomyelitis and infectious bursaldisease. Passive immunity is generallyeffective against viral diseases, but lessso or ineffective against bacterialinfections, e.g., mycoplasmas orsalmonellae.

Active immunity occurs when anantigen is introduced and processedthrough the bird's immune system,resulting in various protective responses.

These responses include the productionof antibody and/or macrophage cellswhich will act to protect the bird if it isexposed to that antigen at a later time.

Active immunity can be producedeither by living or inactivated antigens, orcombinations of the two. Most livingbacterial and viral antigens are eithernaturally occurring strains of lowpathogenicity (mild), or pathogenicstrains whose virulence has been reducedby passage in laboratory media(attenuated). Live vaccines can beadministered either to individual birds, byinjection or eyedrop, or to large numbersof birds via the drinking water or byaerosol. Certain vaccines can be given byinjection into the eggs before hatching.Building a high level of immunity oftenrequires a second or third administrationof vaccine, usually with a strongervaccine strain on each occasion. Inactivated vaccines must be given byinjection. These usually incorporatepotent adjuvants which enhance the localcellular reaction and therefore increase theimmune response.

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Development of ImmunizationPrograms

The development of animmunization program should be basedon knowledge of the diseases to whichbirds are likely to be exposed, andincorporated into the management systemof the flock. It requires knowledge of thepresence and level of passive immunity,so that immunization can be properlytimed. Timing is also important so thatvaccines do not detract from each other'sresponses, or exacerbate their clinicaleffects. Vaccines should not beadministered when other stressors areacting on the flock.

Vaccines should be purchased andused after consultation with vaccinemanufacturers. Where serologicalmonitoring tests are available, theseshould be routinely utilized followingvaccination to ensure that an immuneresponse has taken place.

Limitations of Immunizations

Immunization must not be asubstitute for poor sanitation andbiosecurity. The borderline betweenclinical good health and disease is verynarrow. Thus, immunization programsmay not totally protect birds which arestressed or are in unhygienic conditions. Deleterious conditions will also reduceproductivity. Stressful conditions willrender the birds more susceptible todisease organisms. In other words,animals that are constantly exposed toenvironmental diseases do not grow andproduce as well as those in well managedenvironments.

Cleaning and Disinfecting Houses andEquipment

Periodic cleaning and disinfectionof commercial poultry houses are

recommended to reduce disease agents. These may be performed once per year ormore often if disease problems haveoccurred. When poultry are removedfrom houses, the building and equipmentshould be carefully cleaned anddisinfected before new birds areintroduced. Manure (including litter)should be removed from the immediatevicinity of the poultry houses andpreferably from the premises.

A successful cleaning anddisinfection protocol should include:

1. Removal of all litter and manure.

2. Washing down of the interior ofthe structure and all equipment,preferably using a high-pressurewasher.

3. Application of a disinfectantsolution or fumigant.

Careful attention should be givento watering devices and lines to be surethat they are free of disease agents. Water lines should be flushed and adisinfectant solution pumped into thelines. The lines should be closed andallowed to rest for at least 24 hours andthen thoroughly flushed to remove thedisinfectant.

Preventive Medication

Some disease agents can mosteffectively be controlled in commercialenvironments with preventivemedications. These compounds areusually included in the feed. Theyfunction by disrupting the life cycle of thecoccidia or other disease producingagents.

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Farm Security

Biosecurity is the utilization ofmethods which can stop the transfer ofinfection into or between components ofproduction systems. Biosecurity systemsinclude the following components andprocedures:

- allow only necessary visitors onproduction sites;

- restrict movement of workers andequipment between houses, sitesand age groups;

- provide foot baths or bootwashing stations, showers and protective clothing at strategicpoints;

- maintain ongoing cleaning anddisinfection programs, especially in hatcheries;

- reduce microbial load on trucksand equipment by washing anddisinfecting at critical times;

- locate production sitesstrategically in relation to otherproduction sites and movement ofpoultry to minimize diseasetransfer;

- restrict contact of workers withother poultry, especially potentialcarriers of hazardous diseaseorganisms;

- control rodents and wild birdseffectively, both are potential disease vectors;

- confine pets away fromcommercial poultry.

Monitoring Mortality

Daily flock mortality recordsshould be maintained and monitored.

Crippled, unthrifty, immobile or sickbirds should be removed from flocks atfrequent intervals to prevent spread ofdisease to healthy birds. Culled birdsshould be humanely euthanized. Anyunusual level of mortality should triggeran investigation to determine the probablecause. If the cause is not readilyapparent, a sample of freshly dead birdsshould be examined by management, aveterinarian or diagnostic laboratory. Routine examination of daily mortality isrecommended as a method to monitor thecauses.

Dead Bird Disposal

Successful methods of dead birddisposal prevent spread of pathogens tosurviving birds and result in appropriaterecycling of nutrients withoutcontamination of surface or groundwater. The following methods areacceptable in commercial systems:

Rendering is a very acceptablemethod from an environmental standpointbut can expose the farm to pathogens if arendering truck is used for pick up. It ishighly desirable to establish a road sidepick up area so the rendering trucks donot come onto the farm for more than afew feet. The rendering pick up area mustbe kept neat and should be

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screened from public view. It should belocated downwind from the poultryhouses if possible. This system isflexible and can accommodate a suddenincrease in mortality. Storage containersshould be fly-tight and pick up should bescheduled at least twice per week if thecarcasses are not refrigerated.

Composting, if properly done,is a very acceptable method of carcassdisposal and results in a valuable compostby-product which is an excellent soilamendment. A concrete pad is necessaryto prevent leaching and a rain shelter toprevent excessive wetting of the compost.The composting process must bemanaged to assure that an adequatetemperature is achieved to destroypathogens. The system is flexible andcan handle a sudden increase in mortality.

Incineration is effective from adisease control standpoint but units mustmeet local air pollution standards. Incinerators are expensive to operate,require energy input and cannot handle asudden increase in mortality. Proper ashdisposal is necessary to avoid pollutionproblems.

Disposal pits or burials areenvironmentally acceptable in soils wheremovement of nitrogen into groundwateris not a problem. Unfortunately,determining the suitability of a particularsite for pit disposal or burial may cost asmuch as constructing a suitablecomposter, with no assurance of success.Pits work best with a constant load ofmortality but do not handle suddenincreases in mortality. Burial is a moreflexible method.

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MINIMIZING NUISANCE ASPECTS OF FARMS

Air Quality

Dust and other airborne particlesmay be generated on a production facility.The producer should pay particularattention to prevailing winds and avoidoperations that create dust (houseclean-out, tractor work, etc.) on dayswhen the wind will blow particulatematter onto neighboring property.

It should also be noted that whileCal/OSHA uses dust level exposure limitsfor healthy persons as official limits forthe internal environment of poultryhouses, air quality control boards uselimits that are 10-100 times less thanthese for their environmental limits. Theterm PM-10s is the regulatory term fordust particles smaller than 10 microns. These extremely small particles generatehaze and can be minimized by use ofcover crops and by paving roadssurrounding the poultry facility.

Manure Management and Odor Control

When removed from the poultryhouse, litter should be moved off the siteas quickly as possible. If temporarilystored, it should be stacked in piles toprevent excessive wetting. Manurestorage areas should be graded so thatrun-off from buildings and impervioussurfaces does not run into the storagearea. Run-off from the manure storagearea should be confined to the site andshould not drain toward the poultryhouse(s). Manure is a valuable fertilizerand soil amendment when properlyhandled.

Fly Control

Flies are unsightly and cantransmit disease agents. Musca

domestica, the house fly, is most active attemperatures between 80 and 90oF (26.7- 32.2oC) and at a humidity ofapproximately 40 percent. The house flyis inactive below 45oF (7.2oC) and diesat temperatures below 32oF (0oC). Fannia canicularis, the little house fly, isactive throughout the year, but itsreproduction peaks in the spring and fall. Therefore, fly control on Californiapoultry farms is difficult during theseseasons. Care must be taken to eliminateany areas that would be conducive to flybreeding, such as wet areas in the litter,spilled feed outside poultry houses, etc.

Landscaping

The sight of an animal productionfacility, or especially of a manure storagearea, may create the perception ofnuisance in the minds of someindividuals. The producer mayeffectively screen these entities from viewwith the use of appropriate shrubs andtrees. Vegetative screens can also beeffective in reducing dust leaving thepremises and will shield against the influxof airborne disease agents.

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BIRD HANDLING AND TRANSPORTATION

The manner in which birds arehandled will affect their reaction to therestraint. Birds should always be held ina manner that provides as much supportas possible and reduces the likelihood ofthe bird struggling which may injure itswings or legs. An appropriate manner inwhich to hold an adult chicken is tosupport the bird's breast in the palm ofthe hand while restraining the bird's legsbetween the handler's fingers or byholding both legs. When carrying anadult chicken from one location toanother, the bird can be carried by bothlegs or both wings. The period of time abird is held in a vertical position, with itshead down, should be minimized.

After handling, birds should beplaced directly onto the floor or releasedfrom a low height that allows them toland feet down, without flying.

Catching

It is necessary to remove feed8-12 hours before slaughter to reducecarcass contamination. The catchingprocess should be as efficient as possible,minimize the stress on the birds, and bedone in such a way as to prevent piling ofthe birds. Dimming of the house lights orcatching at night have long beenemployed to create a less stressfulenvironment for catching.

The manner in which a market agebird is caught can have significant effectson carcass quality. All personnelinvolved in bird catching and transportoperations should be given training inappropriate bird catching and handlingmethods.

Loading

The crates, cages or bins used forlive-haul should be properly constructedto allow loading, transportation, andremoval without injury to the birds. Allcontainers must be kept clean and in goodrepair. Stocking density will depend onthe size of the crate, the size of the birds,and transportation conditions (transit timeand temperature). When the crate is full,there should be sufficient floor space sothat all birds can be restingsimultaneously on the floor and each birdshould have free head movement.

During hot weather, birds shouldbe moved during the cooler part of theday whenever possible. Additional spacein transport containers will minimize heatstress. Trucks waiting to unload poultryat processing plants should be providedshade, fan ventilation and during very hotweather, evaporative cooling. To providefor bird comfort, ventilation and birddensity in transport containers should beadjusted with changes in weather. Thetime birds are kept on trucks should beminimized.

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Vehicles

Vehicles must be kept clean and ingood repair. The truck driver isresponsible for assuring that all crates,cage doors, and bins are secured beforeleaving the live production site.

Transportation Conditions and Route

The driver should be prepared tocover the vehicle and protect the birdsfrom possible severe winds and/or rain. Care must be taken that the loaded

vehicle is not left standing for anyextended period of time. In the case ofrequired stops (inspection stations, truckmaintenance, etc.), the birds must beprotected from environmental extremesand provided adequate air circulation.

While the shortest route betweenthe live production facility and theprocessing plant may seem most logical,the driver should avoid passing othersensitive poultry establishments,agricultural operations or residentialareas.

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PROCESSING

Procedures at processing plantsshould be designed to preventunnecessary pain, insure maintenance ofoptimal meat quality and microbial safety,and preserve the product's visual appeal.

Unloading

Care taken in unloading at theplant, will prevent injury of birds. Whilespeed is of importance, it should not beachieved by inappropriate handling ofbirds, crates, or bins. The crates andbins should never be tossed or dropped. If a mechanized system is used forunloading the crates from the truck, careshould be taken so that the crates arenever at an angle which would causepiling of birds.

Shackling

Birds must be hung carefully onthe shackles to avoid injury. Theshackles should be size-appropriate to theage and species of birds beingslaughtered.

Stunning

State or Federal Guidelines mustbe followed depending on the type ofinspection being done at the processingplant. When stunning is employed, theelectrical current is applied in such amanner that the animal be renderedinsensible to pain. Stunning immobilizesthe bird and prevents wing breakage,dislocation of joints and bruising. Theinstrument used for stunning should besafe for plant personnel and shoulddeliver the required electrical shock(appropriate amperage may vary withequipment, age of bird, etc.).

Appropriate State and Federalregulations may be consulted for anyexemptions based on the nature and/orsize of the operation and those related toritual slaughter (religious) practices.

Slaughter

Once stunned, birds areslaughtered by having the jugular veinand carotid artery cut with a sharphand-held or mechanical knife. Again,all pertinent State and Federal regulationsmust be adhered to. Any exemptionswhich apply will be listed in the State orFederal Regulations.

17

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agriculture Canada, 1990. Recommended codeof practice for the care and handling ofpoultry from hatchery to processing plant. Agriculture Canada Publication 1757/E. Ottawa, Canada: Communications Branch,Agriculture Canada.

Azavedo, J. and P. Stout, 1974. Farm animalmanures: an overview of their role in theagricultural environment. Manual 44. California Agricultural Experiment StationExtension Service.

California Food and Agriculture Code. Section19501.

Castellan, R.M., Olenchock, S.A., Kinsley,K.B. and Hankinson, J.L., 1987. Inhaledendotoxin and decreased spirometric values. New England Journal of Medicine317:605-610.

Curtis, S.E., editor, 1988. Guide for the Careand Use of Agricultural Animals inAgricultural Research and Teaching. Consortium for Developing a Guide for theCare and Use of Agricultural Animals inAgricultural Research and Teaching. Division of Agriculture, NationalAssociation of State Universities andLand-Grant Colleges, One Dupont Circle,N.W., Suite 710, Washington, DC20036-1191.

Esmay, M.L., 1978. Principles of AnimalEnvironment. AVI Publishing Co.,Westport, CN.

Jones, W., K. Morring, S. Olenchock, T.Williams, and J. Hickey, 1984. Environmental study of poultry confinementbuildings. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.45(11):760-766.

Loomis, E.C., J.R. Anderson, and A.S. Deal,1980. Identification of common fliesassociated with livestock and poultry. Leaflet 2506. University of CaliforniaCooperative Extension.

National Research Council, 1994. NutrientRequirements of Poultry, 9th Ed. NationalAcademy Press, Washington, DC.

North, M.O. and D.D. Bell, 1990. CommercialChicken Production Manual, 4th Ed. Chapman and Hall, New York, NY.

Parkhurst, C.R. and G.J. Mountney, 1987. Poultry Meat and Egg Production. VanNostrand Reinhold Co., New York, NY.

Payne, V. and J. Donald, undated. Poultry wastemanagement and environment protectionplan. Circular ANR-580. The AlabamaCooperative Extension Service, Auburn,AL.

Stadelman, W.J., V.M. Olsen, G.A. Shemwelland S. Pasch, 1988. Egg and Poultry-MeatProcessing. VCH Publishers, 220 East 23rdSt., Suite 909, New York, NY 10010-4606.

Title 8, California Code of Regulations. Sec.5155, Airborne contaminants.

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GLOSSARY

Adjuvant Additive to vaccine to enhance its effectiveness.

Antibody A protein molecule capable of combining specifically with an antigen.

Antigen A substance foreign to the host animal, commonly a disease agent or vaccine.

Bacterin A killed bacterial vaccine, consisting of a suspension of whole bacteria.

Biosecurity A management system to minimize the disease exposure of flocks.

Broiler/fryer A young chicken (usually under 8 weeks of age) of either sex (usually under 6pounds in ready-to-cook weight).

Composting A natural decomposition process for organic wastes.

Cornish game hen A young chicken (usually 4 to 6 weeks of age) not more than 2 pounds indressed weight.

Dander Small particles of dead skin or feather particles.

Depopulation Removal of all animals from a premise.

Diet A feed prepared from a mixture of ingredients.

Endotoxins Toxins produced by bacteria.

Hatcher Incubator used during the final three days including the hatching period.

Immunity Resistance of a bird to disease challenge.

Litter An absorbent bedding material used to cover the floor in poultry houses.

Macrophage A cell which can ingest and destroy foreign cells such as bacteria.

Multi-age farm A farm with more than one age group of chickens.

Pad cooling An evaporative cooling system which uses wetted pads with fans to move the airinto or out of the house.

Prolapse An eversion of the terminal end of the reproductive tract with exposure of softtissues.

Pullet A sexually immature female chicken.

Rendering The conversion of dead animals to feed ingredients by cooking and separation offat from protein.

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Replacement Young bird grown to replace breeding stock.

Roaster A young chicken (usually under 15 weeks of age) of either sex (usually 5 poundsor more in ready-to-cook weight).

Serology Tests on blood serum to determine the level of circulating antibody to specificdisease agents.

Set (as an egg) Placed in an incubator to produce a chick.

Setter Incubator used during the first 18 days of incubation.

Shackles Metal hangers which hold poultry securely by the feet during processing.

Vector Carrier of a disease agent from one bird to another or even from one farm toanother.

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INDEX

Active immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Adjuvant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 9, 141Airborne contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 19Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 9Antibody . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 21, 22Antigen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 21

Avian encephalomyelitis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Bacterin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Beak trimming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 3Biosecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 12, 21Body weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Broiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 21Brooder ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Brooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Cannibalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 4Carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 3, 9Catching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Chick delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Chick processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 12Composting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13, 21Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 15, 21Cornish game hen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Crate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Dander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 21

Day length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7Depopulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Disinfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 12Dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 9, 14Egg care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Egg sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Endotoxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 21Fannia canicularis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 21Feeder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 6Flies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14, 19Fly control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Fogging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Fryer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Fumigant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Growth rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 7, 15, 17, 19Hatcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.,.3,.21Hatcher tray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Hatchery losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 4, 8, 10Heat stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 15Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11, 21Immunization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Incubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 22Incubator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 22Infectious bursal disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Juvenile growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Landscaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 6, 7Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7Litter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6, 8, 9, 11, 14, 21Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 15Macrophage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 21Manure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 11, 14Marek's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Medication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 4, 8, 12, 13Multi-age farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Musca domestica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Mycoplasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Nest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 6, 7Nuisance dust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Odor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Odor control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Pad cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 21Passive immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11Peanut hulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Preventive medication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 15-17, 19, 22Prolapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 21Pullet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12, 21Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 22Rice hulls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Ritual slaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Roaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Roof sprinkling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Salmonellae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 7, 10Serology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 7, 8, 22Setter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 4, 22Shackles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 22Shackling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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Slaughter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 17Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5, 7, 15Stocking density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Stunning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 4-7, 13, 15Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 17Vaccination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 9, 11Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4, 9, 15Wood shavings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Yolk sac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

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