TOPIC 1     RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define the meaning of research and the different types of research;

2. Discuss the criteria of quality research;

3. Assess the responsibilities of a researcher and the user/sponsor of the research; and

4. Examine the needs to acquire skills to do research.

 

 

INTRODUCTIONResearch provides us with the knowledge and skills needed to help us in making decisions in an environment that changes very rapidly. The term “research,” however, is sometimes loosely used to mean the way data is collected. Politicians often say they formulate policy based on research; news agencies often tell us of their research findings; while marketers highlight the results of their research findings to make consumers believe in the products they are selling. However, all theseonly indicate the wide range of meanings of the term “research” in everyday usage. From the perspective of research methodology, the everyday uses of the term do not relay the true meaning of the word.

In research, data collection is an integral part of the decision-making process. If it is not undertaken in a systematic way, on its own and with a clear purpose, it will not be seen as research. While data may be collected in many different ways and from a variety of sources, assembled in a single document and the sources identified, it is still not considered a research if the data are not interpreted. Thus, research has the following characteristics:

a. Data is collected systematically.

b. Data is interpreted systematically.

c. There is a clear purpose.

Therefore, research is something which people undertake to find out something in a systematic way, thereby increasing their knowledge. Two important aspects of research are that it is systematic and aims to find out things. Systematic implies that research must be undertaken using logical relationships and not just beliefs. Systematic and logical relationships involve an explanation of the methods used to collect data, giving the reasons and meaning of the results obtained and clearly explaining any limitations that affected the results. To find out things suggests that the purposes of doing research may be multiple. These may include describing, explaining, understanding, criticising and analysing. Nonetheless, a clear purpose and a set of things to be found out can provide answers to a question or a number of questions in the research process.

1.1    MEANING OF RESEARCH AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH

ACTIVITY 1.1

 What is research? Why should there be any question about the definition of research?

 

 

Business research covers a wide range of functional and disciplinary areas. Commercial organisations conduct research within the functional areas of an organisation in order to improve business performance. Meanwhile, academics conduct research to investigate research questions arising from a specific academic discipline within the context of the business environment.

In commercial research, a marketing manager conducts a market research to identify customers’ satisfaction on a specific product that the company is selling. In this research, the marketing manager investigates issues concerning the interest of the company and the ultimate objective is to help company to make profit.

In academic research, usually a gap is identified in the literature and this gap reflects the lack of knowledge or limitations in the current body of knowledge within a discipline. As a result, the objective of conducting a research is to generate new knowledge to fill the gap. Academic disciplines in business include human resource management, marketing, finance, accounting, organisational behaviour, operations management, strategy, etc. For example, an operations management researcher would be interested to study the impact of implementing a balanced scorecard in companies. In this academic-based research, the researcher is likely to discover

important management knowledge that can also be used to improve the performance of other organisations.

In general, there are three types of investigations in research (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1:   Types of investigation in research

a. ExperimentIn this method, a researcher will manipulate an independent variable in order to determine whether it has an impact on a dependent variable. There are two types of experiments: laboratory experiment and field experiment. Laboratory experiment is conducted in a contrived situation while field experiment is conducted in a real-life situation. In any experiment, the factors are controlled (set constant) and only one factor is allowed to fluctuate so that its effect on the other factors could be seen. An experiment has very high internal validity.

b. SurveyA survey is a method which investigates the opinions and feelings of people. It involves interactions between the researcher and the environment. Information is collected through questionnaire or interview in many cases. Information collected in this way may not be available under any other circumstances. The relationship between the variables discovered through a survey research does not represent a causal relationship. The researcher can only claim that these variables are correlated. They cannot be certain that there is causation between the variables. Thus, the survey method has lower internal validity than an experiment.

c. Case studyIn this method, a researcher makes a detailed study of a single case. The researcher usually aims to provide in-depth understanding of the specific features of the case and its related settings. Data are collected through observation, interview and document search. There are many concerns regarding the external validity of the case study method. One of them is – How could a single case be generalised or represent many more cases? However, many case-based researchers try to study a few cases in order to claim

theoretical generalisation. Other researchers argue that unlike the survey method, generalisation is not the purpose of the study. In a survey, researchers generalise the findings to a larger population. In a case study, researchers seek to discover in-depth features of the case which cannot be acquired under any other circumstances.

1.2    IMPORTANCE OF HAVING RESEARCH SKILLSIndividuals can benefit from having research skills because:

a. To make decisions, a manager needs information before selecting a course of action. The manager can delegate the collection of information to other people but this may be costly and limited if there is no one skilful enough to do it. The manager can make intuitive judgements but with risks. He can collect the data if he has some level of skills.

b. As a new staff, an employee may be asked to carry out research for a higher-level executive. This could be an opportunity for him to boost his career and give a good impression if he has research skills and abilities.

c. At times, an employee may be asked to evaluate research proposals from people outside the organisation. If he can understand the process of doing research and the research design, he can review the quality of the proposals and help the organisation in selecting the proposal that best meets the needs of the organisation, thus helping to save the organisation both money and time.

d. Information that is useful to decision-makers is normally obtained as findings in a research project. With research skills, an individual could help the organisation by determining the applicability of the information from previous research to resolve existing problems faced by the management.

e. Individuals who are aware of the range of research methods available would be able to choose a suitable method to collect and analyse data in a given situation.

f. Individuals who have mastered the overall research process could follow and implement each research stage properly and ensure that each stage of research is done correctly.

g. Individuals who are aware of the limitations in research could avoid wrong practices which might result in the collection of wrong data or in the making of the wrong conclusions.

h. Individuals who have mastered the research technique in sampling, questionnaire design, experiments, observations and interviews could conduct the research independently.

SELF–CHECK 1.1

 How could research skills enhance the information findings in a research process?

 

 

1.3    PURPOSE OF DOING RESEARCH

ACTIVITY 1.2

 Describe a situation where research will help you as a manager to make a good decision.

 

 

Basically, research is done to collect information in a systematic manner to help overcome problems. The purposes of doing research can be classified as follows:

a. Reporting / ExploringThis is the most basic or initial purpose of research; it is done mainly to collect initial or background information. In reporting/exploring the information, statistical summaries do not give inference or conclusion. Although some say that reporting is not a research, but if the systematic process has been followed then reporting studies are called research. A research design does not necessarily need to be complex and have inferences to be called research.

b. DescriptiveThe purpose of this research is to answer questions relating to who, what, when, where, and sometimes, how. Research is conducted to describe or define a subject, often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people or events. The study may involve data collection and creating a distribution of the number of times an event takes place or the characteristics of an object, or the interaction between two variables. This type of study may or may not have the potential to draw powerful inferences. If sufficient data is kept in the databases, the organisation can easily conduct descriptive studies using internal information. Descriptive research is popular because it can be done across disciplines, and can be utilised easily for planning, monitoring and evaluating purposes.

c. ExplanatoryThe purpose of this research is to answer questions relating to why and how; it goes beyond description and explains the reasons for the phenomenon (a fact) that the descriptive study only observes.

d. PredictiveThe purpose of this research is to predict when and in what situation something can happen. If the reasons for an occurrence can be explained, then it is also possible and desirable to predict when and in what situation the event will occur. Being able to predict the time and the situation of an occurrence makes it possible to control the phenomenon (a fact). The knowledge generated from the occurrence, called a phenomenon, can be used for other different groups of phenomena only if the researcher could take into consideration all other variables influencing the applications.

e.1.4    USES OF RESEARCHf. Research projects can be placed in a continuum according to the purpose and context. At

one extreme of the research continuum is research undertaken purely to understand the process of business and management and their outcomes. Research is conducted for illumination of issues in the academic context. The main purpose of this type of research is to increase understanding of existing theories and generate new theories, giving little attention to practical applications. This type of research is often termed basic, fundamental or pure research. Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the social world. It is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world.

g. At the other end of the continuum, research that is of relevance or immediate application addresses issues that managers see as important and is presented in as simple a manner as possible to enable speedy and immediate action. This type of research is called applied research. Applied researchers apply and tailor their knowledge to address a specific practical issue. Research is conducted by commercial organisations to study issues in the practical context. They want to answer policy questions or solve pressing social or business problems.

h. Basic research is rather traditional, academic-based research. It is associated, although not fully, with the generation of Mode 1 knowledge in research.

i. Mode 1 knowledge focuses on fundamental research work rather than applied research. Fundamental research tends to generate research questions based on the interest of academics, not practising managers. Outputs of research are used mainly for academic development rather than for industrial solution.

j. Mode 2 knowledge emphasises input from the practising world. This research needs collaboration and participation of practising managers. It aims to solve industrial problems and thus, generates industry-relevant knowledge. Mode 2 knowledge develops from Mode 1. This is because research in business not only needs to address and solve management problems, but also advance knowledge and understanding about a discipline.

EXERCISE 1.1  What are the key differences between basic and applied research? Drag the

correct type of research into the correct spaces. 

 

1.5    CRITERIA OF QUALITY RESEARCH

ACTIVITY 1.3  Why is it necessary to follow the standards of the scientific method?  

 

Good information can only be obtained from good research and dependable information,is derived from research practices done professionally. Good research is carefully planned and conducted, which produces data that a manager can use to overcome problems or to reduce the risks in decision-making. Good research must follow the standards of the scientific method. The characteristics of the scientific method are shown below.

a. Purpose Clearly Defined Read more

b. Research Process Detailed Read more

c. Research Design Thoroughly Planned Read more

d. High Ethical Standards Used Read more

e. Limitations Frankly Revealed Read more

f. Analysis Must be Adequate to Meet the Needs of the Decision-Maker Read more

g. Conclusions Justified Read more

h. Researcher’s Experience Reflected Read more

ACTIVITY 1.4

 In your opinion, which among the eight characteristics above is the most important? Give your reasons.

 

 

.6    RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RESEARCHER AND MANAGER

ACTIVITY 1.5  How would you define a good relationship?  

 

For managers to make decisions, they need information; thus gathering of information becomes an integral part of a manager’s job. Managers at the lower hierarchy, who do not have many resources at their disposal, will normally do the research themselves. If the managers do not have the time or talent to do the research, they may delegate the work to a staff assistant or to a research specialist. This delegation of tasks may result in greater efficiency and synergy if both parties have similar objectives and can make full contribution of the cooperation. But the

separation of research user and research conductor may create some problems in data analysis, interpretation, conclusion, finding and recommendations. It is for these conflicts that many businesses prefer to use the same researcher repeatedly; the knowledge of the company, workers and its processes is as critical as knowledge of the decision-making dilemma.

1.6.1    Manager – Researcher ContributionsTo enable the researcher to complete the project satisfactorily, the managers have to specify the problems and provide the researcher with the background information and allow access to company information gatekeepers. The manager should specify the problems in terms of the decision choices that they have to make rather than in terms of information that they think they need. The manager and the researcher can decide on the information that needs to be produced based on the specification of the problems.

The researcher also has obligations once the decision to carry out the project is made. The organisation expects the researcher to provide them with the required information using the most creative research design. The researcher will have to provide the data analysed according to the problem specified and should also give the implications that flow from the results. However, conflicts may arise between what the decision-maker wants and what the researcher thinks should be provided; the decision-maker wants simple and explicit recommendations, but the researcher at best can provide probabilities and hedged interpretations. This conflict has no simple answer but can be resolved if each side knows the demands and restrictions imposed on the other.

1.6.2    Manager – Researcher ContributionsConflicts between researcher and manager may arise due to the limited exposure of management to scientific research. Managers seldom have formal training in research methodologies, and if they do, the rate of advancement in research technology has created a big knowledge gap between managers and researchers. The situation has made managers dependent on researchers and this has brought about the feeling of threats to their personal status. To managers, the management domain is theirs and they are the masters, any requests by researchers for information may be treated as threats and potential rivalry. Researches have to do their work within the environment of the political and corporate culture developed within the organisation. When coalition among the members is formed and they engage in self-serving activities, information may be protected or blocked and findings may be distorted for the individual’s self-interests. Researchers may find themselves isolated from managers because researchers fall back on their specialty and form their own niche. Managers’ limited understanding of research techniques and requirements makes matters worse.

EXERCISE 1.2

 Outline the features that make business and management research different from research in other disciplines.

 

 

1.7    FACTORS INFLUENCING RESEARCH UNDERTAKINGWhen a manager faces a problem, he has two alternative decisions to make, whether to conduct research or not. The decision may be based on several factors (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1: Factors Influencing Research Undertaking

No Factor Description

1. Time Constraints

All research conducted systematically requires time. In some instances when management has to make a decision immediately, there will be no time to conduct research. In such cases, decisions are made without adequate information or thorough understanding of the situation. It is not ideal, but in certain circumstances the urgency of the decision precludes the use of research.

2. Availability of Data

In most cases a manager would have sufficient information readily available to make sound decisions without the need for business research. When the manager does not have sufficient information, then research business must be considered. The manager must determine if by doing the research, information will be available to answer basic questions about the decision. To do research, data must be available; if data cannot be made available, then research cannot be done.

3. Nature of the Decision

The nature of the decision to be made will determine the value of the information produced in the research. A routine daily tactical activity will not require spending on research, however, for a more strategically important decision, information produced from systematically conducted research may be warranted.

4. Benefit versus Costs

As all research requires expenditure, the benefits and costs of carrying out research projects should be compared. In any decision-making process, the manager must identify alternative courses of action, and then weigh the value of each against its cost. Business research should be thought of as an investment alternative.

ACTIVITY 1.6  1. In what situation does a manager have to make crucial decisions?

2. Visit the following websites to obtain more information on the

 

methodologies discussed in this section:

a. Help with research skills and researching the Internet:http://www.support4learning.com/education/research.htm

b. Research skills for home workers and small entrepreneurs:http://www.infoplease.com/homework/researchskills1.htm

 

SUMMARY 

Business research is a management tool which firms use to reduce risks during the decision-making process.

The information that a manager needs for decision-making may range from long range planning information to most practical/tactical information.

Research is information gathering. Scientific research is a systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and analysing data for decision-making.

Business research must be systematic, not haphazard or unplanned. It must be objective to avoid being biased by personal judgment.

The objective of applied research is to facilitate managerial decision-making. The use of pure/basic research is to increase knowledge and concepts.

The manager can use research in all stages of the decision-making process: to define problems, to identify opportunities, to diagnose causal factors and to clarify alternatives.

Research is also used to evaluate current programmes and courses of action, to explain what went wrong with managerial decisions in the past and to forecast future actions and conditions.

The needs for business research have become pertinent in view of the increasingly global interrelationships of the business environment; improvement and advancement in technologies have made the methodologies of business research more complex and more available.

Business firms must have the means to evaluate and interpret research findings in order to use these in any decision-making process.

TOPIC 2    SCIENTIFIC THINKING IN RESEARCH

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the different approaches to problem solving;

2. Compare and contrast the inductive and deductive processes in the scientific method; and

3. Assess the components needed for the development of scientific research.

 

 

The purpose of science is to expand knowledge and discover the truth. By building theory, researchers undertake basic research to achieve this purpose. Prediction and understanding are the two purposes of theory and they usually go hand in hand. To make a prediction, one must know and understand why variables behave as they do. Theories provide this explanation. A theory is a coherent set of general propositions used as principles to explain the apparent relationships of certain observed phenomena. The scientific method is a series of stages used to develop and refine theories.

Scientific methods and scientific thinking are based on concepts, the symbols we attach to bundles of meaning that we hold and share with others. Concepts are invented so as to enable us to think and communicate abstractions. Higher-level concepts are used for specialised scientific explanatory purposes that are not directly observable. Concepts and constructs are used at the theoretical levels while variables are used at the empirical level. The scientific research process is used to develop and test various propositions using inductive-deductive reflective thinking. Scientific research uses an orderly process that combines induction, deduction, observation and hypothesis testing into a set of reflective thinking activities.

People analyse problems differently because they have selective perception and conditioning of the environment affecting them; the kind of questions asked would be different depending on how the people see the world. Scientific inquiry is one of the ways to analyse problems but there are other methods to do so. Understanding the relationship between science and research will help researchers in formulating the research.

2.1    SCIENTIFIC METHODWhat is science? Science is what is known as some definable subject. It tries to describe reality truthfully. It is an institution or a system and a way of producing knowledge. Science is also a product of the system.

To most people, science is classified as hard (physical/biological science) and soft (human science). The subject matter of science determines the techniques and instruments used in scientific studies. A scientific method is the method researchers use to gain knowledge. Business research is scientific because it studies business actions and interaction truthfully.

The basic goal of science is to obtain, with confidence, valid generalisations and to establish relationships between variables. By understanding the relationships, scientists will be able to understand a phenomenon in terms of the patterns of relationships, to make predictions and to determine causal relationships. Good science uses the scientific method and can be characterised by the following:

a. It is empirical, meaning that it is compared against reality;

b. It is replicable or objective, meaning that the researcher’s opinion is independent of the results; other researchers conducting the study would obtain the same results;

c. It is analytical, meaning that it follows the scientific method in breaking down and describing empirical facts;

d. It is theory driven, meaning that it relies on a previous body of knowledge;

e. It is logical, meaning that conclusions are drawn from the results based on logic; and

f. It is rigorous, meaning that every effort is made to reduce error.

It has to be clear that in business there are factors that may be beyond the control of the managers, therefore, there has to be some trade off between the rigour of science and the pragmatics of business. There has to be some give and take between the desires of the businesspeople and the desires of the researchers. In business research, some sacrifice always has to be made between scientific rigour and expediency. Although this will lead to error, as long as the researcher informs the decision-maker of the limitations, and the results are qualified based on the limitations, the research should go on to produce the information. Good scientific research also follows the principle of parsimony, that is, a simple solution is better than a complex solution. Parsimonious research means applying the simplest approach that will address the research questions satisfactorily.

SELF–CHECK 2.1  What are the characteristics of good science?  

 

2.2    TRADITIONAL SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

ACTIVITY 2.1  Logical fallacy: “If I have a long string of losses playing a lottery, the next  

time I play, my chances of winning will be better.”

What type of error relates to this situation? 

Knowledge gained from traditional sources is not scientific and may potentially have errors.

a. Common SenseInformation and knowledge can be gained by relying on what everyone knows and what just makes sense. Common sense is valuable in daily living but it can allow logical fallacies to slip into the thinking. Common sense may contain contradictory ideas that many people may not notice because ideas are used at different times. Common sense can originate from tradition; it is useful and may be correct but it may contain errors, misinformation and contradiction. It may be prejudiced because of beliefs and socio-cultural differences. One can avoid making wrong decisions by accepting the truth that a deficiency of knowledge in common sense exists. To reduce this deficiency, one has to generate the right kind of knowledge and the “common sense” needs to be examined systematically to find its actual cause. The actual cause can be found by setting up experiments for systematic testing or continually collecting data to examine the repeat occurrences of an event. Thus, scientific advances are relied on in scientific research, not “common sense.” The right kind of knowledge is generated through systematic research.

b. Personal ExperienceWhen something happens, you feel it, you experience it and you accept it as true. Personal experience or seeing is believing is a forceful source of knowledge. But personal experience can lead one astray. What may appear true may actually be due to a slight error or distortion in judgment. People make mistakes or fall for illusions. They may believe what they see or experience but these may be full of errors. Personal experience is reinforced by four basic errors:

i. Overgeneralisation: People have some evidence that they believe and then assume that it applies in many other situations too. There are many individuals, areas and situations that people know little or nothing about, so generalising from what little that they know might seem reasonable.

ii. Selective observation: People take special notice of some other people or situations and generalise from these observations. The focus becomes more intense if the objects fit their preconceived ideas; people become more sensitive to features that confirm their ideas.

iii. Premature closure: This often operates with and reinforces the first two errors. Premature closure occurs when people feel they have all the answers and do not need to listen, seek information or raise questions any longer.

iv. Halo effect: This happens in many forms whereby people overgeneralise from what they interpret to be highly positive or prestigious.

2.3    HOW IS SCIENCE BETTER THAN OTHER SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE?The critical factor that separates research from other sources of knowledge and information is that research uses a scientific approach; research is more than just collecting data and processing data to create knowledge, it is a process of producing new knowledge about the world using the scientific approach.

Science is characterised by the two pillars of science: logic and observation. A scientific understanding must make sense (logical) and correspond with what we observe. Observation is used to confirm the world we see by making measurements of what is seen. Both are essential to science and relate to the three major aspects of science:

Scientific theory — Deals with the logical aspects of science.

Data collection — Deals with the observational aspects of science.

Data analysis — Looks at patterns of observations, compares what is logical with what is actual.

2.3.1    Philosophy of Science in Research?Science is still an imprecise field because it is imperfect in the current body of knowledge. From time to time, new concepts are generated to falsify old concepts. New concepts arise as a result of new findings, new sets of data or new perspectives of research, etc. As a result, no matter how well a concept seems to be proven at this moment in time, you have to be aware that new evidences will overturn older ones and new concepts will emerge. Thus, in science, you must

view knowledge as tentative and not absolute. Theories generated in science is tentative law and does not forever govern the way the universe works.

A scientific law is not universal. It just tentatively reflects a natural occurrence under a certain circumstance. However, due to the invention of new measuring techniques, experimental instruments or observations, the scientific law will be modified or changed. As a result, scientific laws are tentative statements and subject to change.

Look at Figure 2.1. Theory is a general statement or proposition explaining what causes what and why and under what circumstances of certain phenomena. A theory is generated through analysis of facts in their relationship to one another that explain phenomena. Facts are discovered through observation. These facts are then analysed, and a model is created to explain the relationship observed in a phenomenon. A tentative theory is then developed from the model. From this tentative theory, prediction and hypotheses are derived for further investigation or testing. The process of further investigation or testing will continue until the theories and laws derived are refined. The refined laws or theories are tentative. If an anomaly is found when a new observation does not fit into a current body of knowledge or the theories or laws are proven wrong, a modification has to be carried out. The process will continue again and again when new knowledge is generated from new observations.

Figure 2.1:  A researcher investigating a phenomenon

2.3.2    Deductive and Inductive ModelsResearch involves the use of theory. In the process of designing the research, theory may or may not be expressed explicitly, although in the presentation of the findings and conclusion, relationships with theories will be explicitly made.

a. The Inductive Model - Moves from the particular to the general, from a set of specific observations to discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among all given events; the logical model in which general principles are developed from specific observations.

b. The Deductive Model - Moves from the general to the specific, from a pattern that might be logically or theoretically expected and observations that test whether the expected pattern actually occurs; the logical model in which specific expectation of hypotheses are developed on the basis of general principles.

Figure 2.2 illustrates the differences between the inductive and deductive model.

Figure 2.2:  Differences between the inductive and deductive model

In the deductive model, existing theory is used to deduce a hypothesis. The hypothesis is then empirically tested through data collected from the field. The data is analysed and the findings are used to validate the hypothesis. If the findings do not fit the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected. If the findings fit the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is accepted. Consequently, theory is revised according to the findings.

In the inductive model, an observation is made in order to generate an initial concept to provide clearer understanding of a phenomenon. The concept is then used to generate more relevant research questions for further data collection. Findings are then used to validate the initial concept. The validated concept is used as the basis for new theory development. Next, the theory is compared with an existing theory. If the new and existing theories are the same, then the existing theory is said to be confirmed or strengthened. If there is any anomaly in the comparison, the existing theory is modified accordingly.

ACTIVITY 2.2  1. Using the deductive model, you might want to prepare yourself to open  

a new business by taking into account everything you know about the operations of the business. Describe logically how you can prepare your business for success.

2. Using the inductive model, explain what exactly are the causes for the closing down of your business.

 

2.4    LINKS BETWEEN THEORY AND RESEARCH

ACTIVITY 2.3

 

1. What is the difference between theory and practice?

2. Define the meaning of “linking theory to practice.”

 

 

In doing research, we try to determine what is in order to understand, explain and predict phenomena. To undertake scientific research, we have to understand the importance of theory in research.

2.4.1    Components (Building Blocks) of TheoryTheory comprises systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts). It is a systematic explanation for the observation that relates to a particular aspect of life. All operations are carried out on the basis of theories since theories are general statements about variables and the relationships among them. These generalisations are used to make decisions and predict outcomes.

Theory serves many useful purposes in research:

a. It narrows the range of facts needed to study; any problem can be studied in many different ways. A theory can suggest the ways that are likely to yield the greatest meaning;

b. It suggests a system for the researcher to impose on data in order to classify them in a more meaningful way;

c. It summarises what is known about an object;

d. It indicates the uniformities that are not immediately observable; and

e. It helps to predict future facts that could be found.

Below are the components of theory:

a. ConceptsTo understand and communicate information about objects and events, there must be a common ground in which to do it; this is the role of concepts. A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations and the like. Concepts may be developed because of frequent, general and shared usage over time. It may be acquired through experience. Some concepts are unique to a particular culture and not easily translated into another language. Ordinary concepts are commonly used in research but there may be uncommon concepts or newly advanced ideas, so they may be borrowed from other languages or other fields.

In research, concepts used must be precise and imaginative; hypotheses are designed using concepts, measurement concepts are used to collect data, new concepts may be invented to express ideas. The success of research depends on the ability of researchers to conceptualise ideas and how well others understand the concepts used. Concepts represent progressive levels of abstractions; the degree to which the concepts do not have objective referents. A shirt is an objective concept; personality is a concept with a high degree of abstractions, such concepts are called constructs.

b. ConstructsA construct is an image or idea specifically invented for a given research and/or theory-building purpose. Constructs are developed by combining simpler concepts, especially if the idea or image we want to convey is not directly subject to observation. Intelligent quotient (IQ) is constructed mathematically from observations of the answers given to a

large number of questions in an IQ test. No one can directly or indirectly observe IQ but it is a real characteristic of people.

c. DefinitionsIf the meaning of the concept is confused, the value of the research may be destroyed. If the concepts used give different meanings to different people, it indicates that the parties are not communicating on the same wavelength. A concept may be defined with a synonym. A customer is a patron or a client; one who employs the services of any professional or shop. For research purposes, the definition must measure concepts, thus, needing a more rigorous definition.

Operational definition is a definition stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations; the terms must have empirical referents (must be able to count, measure or in some way gather information through our senses). The definition must specify the characteristics to study and how to observe the characteristics, it is clear that any other person using them will classify in the same manner. The purpose of operational definition is basically to provide an understanding and measurement of concepts.

d. VariablesAt the theoretical level, constructs and concepts are used to relate to propositions and theory; at this level, constructs cannot be observed. At the empirical level, propositions are converted into hypotheses and tested; at this level, the concepts are termed as variables. The term “variable” is used as a synonym for construct or the property being studied. A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned. Click on each card below to know more about each definition.

e. PropositionsPropositions are statements about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena.

f. HypothesisHypothesis is a proposition that is formulated for empirical testing:

i. Descriptive hypotheses are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form or distribution of some variables.

ii. Relational hypotheses are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case; the relationship can be correlation or causal (explanatory).

o Role of hypothesis in researchA hypothesis serves several functions in a research:

It guides the direction of the study;

It limits what is to be studied and what is not;

It identifies which facts are relevant and which are not;

It suggests the most appropriate form of research design; and

It provides a framework for organising the conclusions.

o Criteria of good hypothesisA good hypothesis meets three conditions:

Adequate for its purpose: A descriptive hypothesis must clearly state the condition, size or distribution of some variables in terms of values meaningful to the research task;

Testable: A hypothesis is not testable if it requires the use of techniques that are not available; and

Better than its rivals: The hypothesis has a better range than its rivals whereby it explains more and a greater variety of facts than others; or it is simple and requires few conditions or assumptions.

g. ModelA model is a representation of the developed system used to study some aspects of the system or the system as a whole. It is different from theory because theory explains relationships in the system whereas a model is a representation of the relationships in the system.

h. FrameworkA framework is an abstract representation of a phenomenon. It describes the variables studied and the relationships among the variables. It can be represented graphically in a diagram. Thus, in the early stage of a research, a theoretical framework is usually constructed based on initial studies or literature search. The theoretical framework is used to explain the relationships that need to be investigated and tested in research. A framework that has been successfully tested will be considered as the final framework. A research will report the research findings by presenting the final framework.

i. ProcessA process is developed for a specific purpose in a business organisation. It aims to make some change in the organisation. For example, let’s say a company implements a process to improve its quality performance. This process may involve changes in the structure (such as someone is transferred to a different department) or operations (such as the procedure of quality inspection is modified) of the organisation. In research, a process is developed to help solve an organisation’s problem or improve its performance. The output of this research will be in the form of a new process rather than a framework or model. A process is also called a tool, procedure, method or system.

SELF–CHECK 2.2

 

1. What are the differences between proposition and hypothesis?

2. What are the differences between concept and construct?

3. What are the differences between model and framework?

 

SUMMARY 

Scientific research is an alternative to gain knowledge and information; other alternatives to gain knowledge include authority, tradition, common sense, media myth and personal experience.

Although scientific research does not produce 100% exact information, it is less likely to have potential errors and less likely to be flawed.

The traditional model of science is made up of three components: theory, operationalisation and observation.

The inductive and deductive model combines induction, deduction, observation and hypothesis testing as a problem-solving process.

Scientific methods are based on concepts, constructs and variables, which when operationalised, enable empirical testing of hypotheses.

Variables are concepts and constructs used at the empirical level. They are numerals or values that represent the concepts for the purpose of testing and measurement.

A hypothesis describes relationships between variables.

A good hypothesis can explain what it claims, is testable, has greater range and is simpler than its rival.

Theories are general statements explaining phenomena.

Theories consist of concepts, definitions, and propositions to explain and predict phenomena.

Models are representations of the same aspects of a system or of the system as a whole.

TOPIC 3    RESEARCH PROCESS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

 

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Identify the types of problems that need to be highlighted in research;

2. Describe the stages of the research process; and

3. Assess the factors that influence the success of a research

 

 

INTRODUCTIONScientific research usually involves a multi-stage process. Although the actual number of stages may vary, scientific research must include formulating and identifying a topic, reviewing literature, planning a strategy, collecting data, analysing data and writing a report. In discussing the research process, the presentation depicts a stage by stage and a straightforward rational discussion, although in real working conditions of doing a research project, this is unlikely to be the case. The researcher may have to revisit each stage more than once because each stage is interrelated and may influence or be influenced by other stages. Each time a researcher revisits a stage, he may have to reflect on the associated issues and refine his ideas; in addition, he has to consider ethical and access issues during the process.

3.1    RESEARCH PROCESS

ACTIVITY 3.1

 Identify the purpose of the research process and what is the main factor to make it successful.

 

 

The research process usually starts with interest in a certain event, situation, object or just wanting to know about something. Research is the process of gathering the information needed to answer certain questions and thereby helping in solving problems faced by an individual, firm, organisation or society. For information to be useful, it must be good. To get good information, the process of getting the information must be good. A good process is a scientific or systematic process. Doing a scientific research project needs money; for that matter, the first thing that a sponsor will look out for in a research proposal is the amount of money the research is going to cost.

Expenditure is also needed at various stages in the research process:

a. The preparation cost is the opportunity cost of the researcher for doing the proposal;

b. Collection of data normally uses a major proportion of the budget allocate for research; and

c. The other costs are the cost of analysing the data, interpreting the results and preparing the final report.

The steps in the research process are depicted in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Overview of research process

Below are the details for Figure 3.1.

a. Problem Identification

The first stage of research is to identify problems or issues and to justify the need for research. There are many sources of research problems such as personal interest, personal experiences, social problems, world trends, new development in technology or society, etc.

b. Formulate Research Questions

Research questions are important to ensure that the research is moving in the right direction. The questions serve as guideline for literature search, data collection, analysis and conclusion. Research questions are usually more specific in quantitative research than in qualitative research. We cannot answer all research questions that rise. Rather, we need to select questions based on the time and cost available in a research project.

c. Literature Review

Literature review includes the purposes of the research, the search strategies and plan of how to undertake the research and write the review.

d. Research Philosophy and Approach

In research, understanding of the appropriate research philosophy and approach is important before beginning a research. You may choose to use an inductive approach rather than a deductive approach. You may choose to follow the physical science approach (i.e. positivism) or focus on the human aspect of studies (i.e. interpretivism). Deciding on your research approach is important to justify your own values and how you see the world. This justification at the early stage of a research will determine the way you design your research, collect and analysis data, and conclude your research.

e. Research Design

In this stage, a range of research methods are available for conducting your research. The choices are between quantitative and qualitative methods. Sometimes the use of combined research methods are encouraged.

f. Data Collection

Before collecting data, you need to think about the sampling method. Qualitative research will usually adopt a theoretical sampling method while quantitative research will adopt probability or non-probability sampling. You have to decide what data need to be collected such as primary or secondary data. You will also need to think about how to access these data and what method you will use to capture these data. There are many ways you can collect data such as observation, semi-structured or structured interviews. Before collecting data, questionnaires need to be developed.

g. Data Processing and Analysis

The main issue that needs to be considered here is how to prepare data for either quantitative or qualitative analysis. Data need to be edited and coded for subsequent analysis. For quantitative data, the use of computerised analysis software package such as SPSS is encouraged. Analysis of qualitative data is very subjective and is usually done manually. The use of various qualitative data analysis methods such as pattern matching,

textual analysis, grounded theory and narrative analysis depend on the nature of the data itself.

h. Conclusion and Report

The final report presents the whole research project from the research issues, literature review, research methodology, findings, data analysis and conclusion. Not all reports are of the same format; as a researcher you have to decide on the structure, content and style of the final report.

3.2    PROCESS OF IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEMA useful method of approaching the research process is by stating the management dilemma. The dilemma may be a general situation that the firm faces and has tangible effects on the firm. The everyday dilemma that the firm faces may be a symptom of a bigger problem. The dilemma is easily identified; however, to focus on the real problem may be more difficult. To identify the dilemma, a situational analysis can be carried out. The dilemma will finally lead to the practical problem.

  Example 3.1

The productivity of workers was sliding downward despite management giving higher wages to workers. The management had hoped that the problem could be resolved by the new wages; however, this did not work.

a. Practical problem is the situation where the effects could be felt immediately. It could be expressed in terms of the topic, the purpose or the general objective of the study.

b. Research problem is the information or the situation, which is required but not available at the moment.

The research problem can be identified by:

a. Examining the concept or the construct;

b. Breaking down the problem into smaller more specific questions;

 

c. Stating hypotheses to be tested clearly;

d. Identifying the evidence to check the questions and the hypotheses; and

e. Identifying the scope of the study.

 

  Example 3.2

Workers are more concerned with being accepted as a part of the organisation by the management of the organisation.

a. Investigative QuestionsOnce the research problem has been identified, the researcher has to think of the problem in a more specific or focused way; this is the investigative question. These are questions that the researcher must ask in order to get the most satisfying conclusion regarding the research question. The specific questions will help in determining the types of data to be collected.

b. Measurement QuestionsThese are questions that are actually asked of respondents in order to obtain necessary data for analysis; these are questions that appear in the questionnaire. If the research uses an observational approach, the measurement questions take the form of records of the observations of the subject made by the researcher.

Steps that can be taken to ensure the success of the research include:

Exploratory Study

a. To get up-to-date information;

 

b. To know what those who have more information about the problem feel about the situation and the technological prospects;

c. To determine other researchers who have been involved in similar types of study; and

d. To determine the successes and failures of other researchers in similar situations.

Factors that may impede the research process are as follows:

a. The most favoured methodology syndrome;

b. The notion that the results of the study could solve all problems;

c. Designing questions that cannot be examined;

d. Problems that have not been defined properly; and

e. Research that has been directed on a political platform.

 

ACTIVITY 3.2  What are the systematic/scientific steps needed to carry out a research?

3.3    DATA FOR RESEARCH

ACTIVITY 3.3  Where is the best location to collect data? Why?  

 

Data is facts which the researcher gets from the environment. Data may take numerical or non-numeric forms of information and evidence that have been carefully gathered according to sets of rules and established procedures. Data may be obtained using simple observations at a specific crossroad to modern technologically enhanced survey from big giant corporations all over the world. The technique used to collect data will determine the methods by which data is collected. Among the techniques used to record raw data include questionnaires, observational forms, laboratory notes, instrument calibration logs, financial statements and standardised instruments. Data is used in order to reject or to accept hypotheses; and as evidence or empirical information that represent the concept.

The characteristics of data can be examined in terms of:

a. Level of abstractness – They are more metaphorical than real, for example, profits cannot be observed directly but the effects can be recorded.

b. Ability to be proven – When the sensory experiences produce the same result consistently, then the data is reliable and can be verified.

c. Difficulty in obtaining data – Obtaining data may be difficult due to the speed of change at which events occur and the lapse in time of the observation; changes occur with the passage of time.

d. Level of representation of the phenomenon under study – That is how close it is to the real phenomenon.

3.3.1    Types of DataThere are two types of data:

a. Secondary data – Data that have been collected and processed by one researcher and reanalysed for a different purpose by another researcher.

b. Primary data – Data that has close proximity to the truth and control over error, so careful designing for the collection of the data becomes pertinent.

c.3.4    ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING DATA

ACTIVITY 3.4

 You have collected data on the age of tourists. How could age be used in planning the development of a tourist product?

 

 

d. Data in raw form is of little help in overcoming management problems or in decision-making. To produce information, the raw data needs to be processed, transformed and reduced so that it is more easily managed. To make the information more useful, data interpretation involves making conclusions, looking at patterns of relationships and using statistical techniques. Interpretation of the findings of the analysis also involves determining whether the research questions are answered or whether the results are consistent with theories and prior information.

3.5    PRESENTATION OF RESULTSThe results or findings of the analysis must be transmitted or delivered so that the recommendations or suggestions made based on the facts are available to the managers or users for the intended purpose of decision-making. The presentation of the findings may vary depending on the target audience, the occasion and the purpose of doing the research. An important aspect that must be considered in preparing the report is the client’s perspective. The researcher may have the capability and ability to carry out sophisticated research; however, it is the manager who is going to use the information to solve his problems. Therefore, the researcher must assess the manager’s needs and take this into consideration when relaying findings to the manager through the research report.

The minimum parts of a research report should contain the following sections:

a. An executive summary which discusses the synopsis of the problem, findings and recommendations;

b. A general overview of the research which gives the background information relating to the problem, a brief discussion of the related literature, the methodology and the conclusions;

c. A discussion on the implementation of the strategies based on the suggestions made; and

d. A technical appendix that includes all the materials necessary to replicate the project.

ACTIVITY 3.5  Suggest other relevant items that can be placed in a research report.

3.6    TO CHOOSE A TOPICa. Subject/General Problem – An area of interest that can be narrowed down to a suitable

topic; subjects are either too broad or too loosely defined to serve as topics for research.

 

Example 3.3

Topics that are too broad: Consumer behaviour; demand analysis; industrial development; effects of AFTA; marketing strategies; educational policies.

Topics that are too loosely defined: Cures for cancer; rural-urban labour migration; community awareness of environmental health threats; communication systems. What are the things to be looked for in readings? What questions would need to be answered?

A subject/general problem must lead to a good topic – One that raises some questions that have not been answered to the satisfaction of all authorities on the topic.

Remember the purpose of research: To explain/describe, or to illustrate/explore, or to argue for/determine causal relationship, or to forecast/control. Research is more than mere reporting or just finding information. The researcher should be able to evaluate the information and ideas discovered and to arrive at a clear, well-thought conclusion that gives the reader something to think about or to use in solving problems.

 

 

b.

c. Topic – A reasonably narrow, clearly defined area of interest that could be thoroughly investigated within the limits of the resources available to undertake the research.

 

Example 3.4

o The effects of parental attitudes on teenage pregnancy

o The demand for recreation from domestic visitors in Langkawi

o The role of certain traditional herbs in the cure of certain cancers

o The effectiveness of improved communication systems on the productivity of airline catering workers

o The effects of the growth of the component manufacturing industry on rural-urban migration of women

o The role of local universities in the usage of the English language in primary schools

However, never choose a topic hastily. A good topic raises questions that have no simple answers. When there is no single, accepted answer, the experts in the field will disagree to some extent, which is just what is wanted.

Avoid topics in which the controversy derives solely from opinion; such questions can only be resolved by each individual in the light of his or her personal values. Some excellent topics are not concerned with issues as such; instead, they pose the general question of informing what is being done in a particular area. The research is not geared towards making judgements as to who or what is right but instead consists of assembling information from various sources in order to present readers with a composite picture.

 

 

d. Thesis – A general statement that announces the major conclusions that may be reached after a thorough analysis of all sources. The statement should appear in the beginning of the research report (in the problem statement); the main body of the report should explain, illustrate (introductory stage), analyse (methodology sections), argue for, and in some sense, prove the thesis (discussion and conclusion). The defence of the thesis consists of evidence gathered and analysed from a fair number of sources that express the various points of view towards the topic.

If the thesis can be thought of early, then the researcher can easily limit the reading in each source to just those passages that relate directly to the thesis. But this is not always possible, thus it will be most helpful to think of the topic in terms of the possible thesis or hypothesis.

e. Hypothesis – The predictions (of the eventual thesis), made sometime before reading the sources, as to what the research will reveal about the topic i.e. what answers are expected to be found for the major questions raised by the topic. As can be seen, the hypothesis (educated guess) can help the researcher to find exactly what information (data, methods) is needed as quickly and efficiently as possible, by keeping the attention focused on a limited number of specific aspects of the topic. A carefully worded hypothesis can greatly reduce problems of searching for sources and extracting from them the most useful information. In other words, the hypothesis points the right direction by indicating the specific questions that need answers. The information/answer that either agrees or disagrees with the hypothesis will bring the researcher closer to the truth, which is the thesis of the researcher.

Forming the hypothesis should be done while choosing the topic. This is because the topic involves unanswered questions and the hypothesis predicts the possible answers. The hypothesis can thus test the thoroughness of the research. The hypothesis should not be defended by using only those that support it; for validity of the conclusions. Different sources representing different viewpoints should be considered. The mission of the research is to present readers with the full picture so that they will have enough information to evaluate the conclusions.

EXERCISE 3.2  Select the appropriate answer (True (T) or False (F)) for each statement below by

selecting the radio button.