26

C

caballing. The mixing of two water massesto produce a blend that sinks because of itis denser than its original components. This occurs when two water masses havethe same density but differenttemperatures and salinities.

cable ladder. A ladder used in verticalcaving that is made of two parallel cableswith metal rungs held in place on thecables with metal tubes crimped to thecables[13].

cable way. A cable stretched across a riverfrom which a cable car is suspended toallow for stream dischargemeasurements[16].

caisson. A protective chamber for theexcavation of water submergedunconsolidated sediments[16].

calanque. (French.) 1. Cove or small bay. 2. A valley excavated in limestone orformed by collapse of the roof of a caveand subsequently submerged by a rise insea level[10].

calc-. Prefix meaning limy; containingcalcium carbonate[10].

calcarenite. 1. Limestone or dolomitecomposed of coral or shell sand or ofgrains derived from the disintegration anderosion of older limestones. Size ofparticles ranges from 1/16 to 2millimeters[10]. 2. A carbonate rock thatconsists predominantly (>50%) of sand-sized calcite (or dolomite) particles. Many of the particles are the angular ordegraded fragments of fossil shells[9].

calcareous. 1. Containing calciumcarbonate[10]. 2. Descriptive of a rock thatcontains calcium carbonate[9].

calcareous tufa. See sinter.

calcification. Replacement of the originalhard parts of an animal or plant bycalcium carbonate[10].

calcilutite. 1. Clastic limestone or dolomitein which the grains have an averagediameter of less than 1/16 millimeter;calcareous mudstone[10]. 2. A carbonaterock that consists predominantly (>50%)of silt and/or clay size calcite (ordolomite) particles[9].

calcirudite. A fragmental limestone inwhich the particles are generally largerthan 2 millimeters[10].

calcite. 1. The commoner, more stable,mineral form of calcium carbonate,CaCO3. It is the dominant component ofall limestones and, due to its dissolutionand reprecipitation by natural waters atnormal temperatures, it is also thedominant mineral of chemical cavedeposits including stalactites andstalagmites. It is white or colorless whenpure but may be stained, most commonlyto yellows and browns, by includedimpurities such as iron oxides. Itsuninterrupted growth in a pool may allowdevelopment of good crystals, shaped aselongate scalenohedral pyramids oftrigonal habit. Growth in stalactites andstalagmites is either in masses of fineparallel or radiating needles, or in amosaic of larger rhombic crystals, easilyidentified by their well developedcleavage surfaces. Calcite is also the

27

dominant vein mineral in limestones[9]. 2.A mineral composed of calciumcarbonate (CaCO3) like aragonite butdiffering in crystal form; the principalconstituent of limestone and otherspeleothems[10].

calcite bubble. A hollow sphere formed bythe deposition of calcite around a gasbubble; the interior is smooth, and theexterior consists of small jaggedcrystals[10].

calcite flottante. (French.) See floe calcite.

calcite raft. A veneer of reprecipitatedcalcite forming a sheet over all or part ofthe surface of a static cave pool inconditions favoring the release of carbondioxide[19].

calc-sinter. See sinter.

calcium carbonate. Naturally occurringcompound with the chemical formulaCaCO3. It occurs commonly as themineral calcite and less commonly asaragonite, and is the major component ofcarbonate rocks including limestone andmarble. It also forms the matrix orcement that holds together manysandstones and other sedimentary rocks[9]. See also dolomite.

calcrete. (South African.) See caliche.

calibration. The experimental evaluation ofthe scale readings of an instrumentagainst an absolute standard[16].

caliche. 1. (Chilean and Peruvian.) Anatural deposit of nitrates and other saltsprecipitated at the soil surface. 2.

(Mexico and Southwestern UnitedStates.) Indurated calcium carbonate andother salts found in the soil at the surfacein arid and semiarid regions, generallyformed by evaporation of lime-bearingwaters drawn to the surface by capillaryaction. 3. In some areas, refers to hardpanresulting from concentration of carbonatein the soil by downward leaching andreprecipitation[10]. 4. A deposit ofprecipitated minerals, mainly calcite orgypsum or both, formed in the soil ornear-surface layers in arid and semi-aridzones at the horizon where ascendantcapillary water evaporates and salts heldin solution are deposited. 5. A similardeposit, formed by precipitation of saltsleached from near-surface material andreprecipitated at shallow depths fromdownward moving waters[20]. Synonyms:(French.) croûte; (German.) Kalkkruste,Ca-Horizont; (Greek.) apóthema oriktónaláton; (Italian.) caliche; (Spanish.)caliche; (Turkish.) kaliçi. See alsohardpan; havara; kafkalla; kankar;kunkar; nari; calcrete.

callow. (English.) Top or rubble bed of aquarry.

canal seepage loss. Water lost to thesubsurface by seepage through thechannel bottom or walls[16].

canale. (Italian.) Long drowned valley onthe Dalmatian coast. Some canali may bedrowned poljes[10].

cáno. (Spanish.) Stream. See also stream.

canopy. 1. Overhanging flowstone thatprojects from a cave wall. It may be aremnant of a once continuous false floor

28

or a mass of flowstone that has builtsteadily outwards to create its ownoverhang[9]. 2. A compound caveformation consisting of flowstonehanging from a sloping wall projectionand forming a fringe of shawls orstalactites on the outer edge[10].

canyon. 1. A steep-walled chasm, gorge, orravine cut by running water. 2. A chasmthat has been formed by a cave stream. 3.A valley formed by collapse of the roof ofa long fairly straight cave; a karstvalley[10]. Related to corridor. Synonyms: (French.) canyon, gorge,can#on; (German.) Schlucht, Canyon;(Greek.) pharangi; (Italian.) forra, gola,orrido, canyon; (Russian.) kanjon;(Spanish.) cañón;, garganta; (Turkish.)bo™az; (Yugoslavian.) klanac, sutjeska,soteska, vintgar. See also bogaz; chasm;gorge; ravine.

canyon passage. 1. A tubular passage(cave) that is formed by undergroundstreams following gently tilted bedding-plane partings or fractures and are erodingchannels downward through the rock. Their ceiling heights are greater than theirwidths. They are similar to surfacecanyons, but they possess roofs and aregenerally the same distance apart at thetop as they are at the bottom. InMammoth Cave, most are narrow andwinding and may achieve dimensions of50 feet wide by 100 feet high. If a canyonpassage begins forming on an old tubepassage, then a keyhole passage mayresult[15]. 2. Also known as vadosecanyons, these are cave passages, mostcommonly formed by continued floorentrenchment or incision, by a freeflowing vadose stream. The passage

width at any particular level is determinedby the flow of the formative stream, therate of its downcutting and the effects ofany subsequent collapse. Canyon heightreflects the stream’s downcutting history. It depends upon the vertical distanceavailable for erosional descent to the localbase level and the time that erosionaldowncutting has been active, as well asupon the more obvious but less importantinfluences of flow rate and erosionalcapacity. Vadose canyons commonlytwist and meander sharply, whilemaintaining roughly parallel verticalsides. In contrast to some meanders insurface streams, underground meandersmust generally be imprinted on a beddingplane before entrenchment of the canyonbegins. Narrow canyon passages,commonly less than 1 m wide and morethan 20 m high, are a particular feature ofdeep alpine caves. Perhaps the largestcanyon passage in the world is that inŠkocjanske Jama, Slovenia, which is over100 m high and 50 m wide[9]. Seeparagenetic cave. See also keyholepassage; passage; tubular passage;vertical shafts.

capacity. The property to contain a certainvolume or mass[16].

capacity, carrying. The capacity of awatercourse to transport solids[16].

capacity curve. A graphic presentation ofthe rate of discharge in a pipe or conduitor through porous material[16].

capacity, entrance. The property of a soilto let water infiltrate[16].

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capacity, field; field-carrying; capillary. Soil moisture retained by capillarity andnot removable by gravity drainage[16]. Synonym: specific retention.

capacity, ground-water. 1. The ability ofsoil or rock materials to hold water. Theyield of a pump, well, or reservoir.

capacity, hydraulic. The ability of acurrent of water or wind to transportdetritus, as shown by the amountmeasured at a point per unit of time.

capacity, infiltration. The maximum rateat which a soil can absorb precipitationfor given conditions[16].

capacity, self-cleaning. The capacity of ariver to clean its water from pollutantsover a given length of water course[16].

capacity, specific. The ratio of welldischarge to corresponding discharge[16].

capacity, storage. 1. The ability of anaquifer to store water[16]. 2. The capacityof rivers to store water in their ownchannels[16].

capacity, total. The maximum rate of yieldof a well[16].

capacity, transmission. The property of aporous medium to conduct fluid[16].

capacity, well. The rate at which a well willyield water[16].

capillarity. The action by which a fluid,such as water, is drawn up (or depressed)in small interstices or tubes as a result ofsurface tension.

capillary action. The movement of water inthe interstices of a porous medium due tocapillary forces[22]. Synonymous withcapillarity, capillary flow, and capillarymigration.

capillary attraction. The adhesive forcebetween a liquid and a solid in capillarity.

capillary condensation. The formation ofrings of pendular water around pointcontacts of grains, and, when the ringsaround adjacent contacts become largeenough to touch.

capillary conductivity. 1. The property ofan unsaturated porous medium to transmitliquid[22]. 2. Coefficient which expressesthe extent to which an unsaturatedpermeable medium allows flow of waterthrough its interstices, under a unitgradient of capillary potential[22].

capillary fringe. The lower subdivision ofthe unsaturated zone immediately abovethe water table in which the interstices arefilled with water under pressure less thanthat of the atmosphere, being continuouswith the water below the water table butheld above it by capillary forces[22].

capillary fringe zone. The zone above thefree water elevation in which water isheld by capillary action.

capillary head. The potential, expressed inhead of water, that causes the water toflow by capillary action[22].

capillary interstice. An interstice smallenough to hold water by surface tension atan appreciable height above a free watersurface, yet large enough to prevent

30

molecular attraction from extendingacross the entire opening.

capillary migration. See capillary action.

capillary movement. The rise of water inthe subsoil above the water table bycapillarity.

capillary percolation. See imbibition.

capillary potential. The scalar quantity thatrepresents the work required to move aunit mass of water from the soil to achosen reference location and energystate[22].

capillary pressure. The difference inpressure across the interface between twoimmiscible fluid phases jointly occupyingthe interstices of a porous medium causedby interfacial tension between the twophases[22].

capillary rise. The height above a freewater surface to which water will rise bycapillary action[22]. Synonymous withheight of capillary rise.

capillary stalagmite. Hollow stalagmiteformed by saturated karst water pushedup through capillaries and small cracks ina sinter crust covering permeable fluvialdeposits on the floor of a cave; firstreported from Cuba, where suchstalagmites are composed of aragonite[10].

capillary tension. See moisture tension.

capillary water. 1. Water held in the soilabove the phreatic surface by capillaryforces[22]. 2. Soil water above

hydroscopic moisture and below the fieldcapacity[22].

carabiner. An oval of steel or aluminumwith a movable spring-loaded gate on oneside. A locking carabiner is one wherethe gate is threaded and has a ring that canbe threaded over the gate opening toprevent it from opening[13]. Synonyms:karabiner; krab.

carbide, calcium carbide. A compound(CaC2) of grayish color that reacts withwater to produce acetylene gas andcalcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2][13]. Commonly used by cavers and minersearlier in this century as a means ofproviding light in caves or mines. Somecavers still prefer carbide lights overelectric lights. See also carbide lamp.

carbide lamp. A carbide lamp, also knownas a miners’ carbide lamp or acetylenelamp was introduced into mine use atabout 1897. It consists of two chambers,a water tank above and a removablecarbide canister below with a connectionvalve to permit controlled seepage ofwater into the calcium carbide. Thecarbide and water react to generatecalcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] andacetylene gas. The gas is passed througha filter into a tube and through a tinyburner-tip orifice designed for theoptimum mixture of air and acetylene. Once ignited, it burns with a brilliantyellow-white flame produced by theincandescence of tiny carbon particles. Areflector concentrates the light in aparticular direction[13].

carbonate. 1. A salt or ester of carbonicacid; a compound containing the radical

31

CO3–2, such as calcium carbonate, CaCO3.

2. A rock consisting mainly of carbonateminerals, such as limestone ordolomite[10].

carbonate-fluorapatite. A cave mineral —Ca5(PO4,CO3)3F[11].

carbonate hardness. Hardness of waterdue to presence of dissolved bicarbonatesof calcium and magnesium which can beremoved by boiling and hence the term‘temporary hardness.’ Synonyms:(French.) dureté temporaire; (German.)temporäre Härte, Carbonathärte; (Greek.)parothiki sklipotis anthrakiki sklirotis;(Italian.) durezza temporanea; (Russian.)karbonatnaja zestkostj; (Spanish.) durezatemporal; (Turkish.) karbonat sertli™i;(Yugoslavian.) turdoóa, trdota.

carbonate-hydroxylapatite. A cavemineral — Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH)[11].

carbonate rock. A rock that consists of oneor more carbonate minerals. Carbonaterock successions (or sequences) are thosein which carbonate rock is dominant, butwhich also contain rocks of otherlithology[9].

carbonic acid dissolution. Dissolution ofcalcium carbonate by carbon dioxide inaqueous solution, loosely termedcarbonic acid, is the dominant reaction inkarst processes, including speleogenesis. The reaction can be considered in severalways but it is most simply represented as:

CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O º Ca(HCO3)2

The reaction is reversible. The solutioncontaining the dissolved reaction product,

usually termed calcium bicarbonate, can losecarbon dioxide to the atmosphere andprecipitate calcium carbonate. This processis responsible for the development ofspeleothems underground and tufa ortravertine at the surface[9].

carnivore. An animal that lives by eatingthe flesh of other animals[23]. See alsoherbivore; insectivore; omnivore.

cascading water. In reference to wells,ground water which trickles or poursdown the casing or uncased boreholeabove the water level in the well throughcracks or perforations[22].

casing. Permanent liner of a well[16].

casing joint. Welded or threadedconnection for tubular casing[16].

casing, surface. That part of a well casingthat extends above land surface[16].

catch basin. 1. A reservoir or basin intowhich surface water may drain. 2. Abasin to collect and retain material from astreet gutter that would not readily passthrough a sewer system.

catchment. (Great Britain.) 1. An area intowhich surface water may drain. 2. Adepression that collects rainwater (e.g.,reservoir).

cation. An ion having a positive chargeand, in electrolytes, characteristicallymoving towards a negative electrode[6].

cation exchange. Ion exchange process inwhich cations in solution are exchangedfor other cations from an ion exchanger[6].

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cation exchange capacity. The sum total ofexchangeable cations that a porousmedium can absorb. Expressed in molesof ion charge per kilogram of soil (or ofother exchanges such as clay)[22].

causse. (French.) A limestone plateau in thesoutheastern part of the central massif ofFrance characterized by closeddepressions, caves, and avens (jamas); anumber of such plateaus in and aroundthe basin of the river Tarn constitute LesGrandes Causses. This region wasconsidered by Cvijiƒ to exemplify karstdevelopment intermediate betweenholokarst and merokarst[10]. Synonym:(French.) causse; (German.) (KalksteinPlateau), Cauße; (Greek.) karstikónoropédion; (Italian.) altopiano carsico;(Russian.) izvestnjakovoje karstovojeplato; (Spanish.) altiplano carstico;(Turkish.) kireçtaÕi düzlügü;(Yugoslavian.) krs #ki plato, kras #ki plato.

cave. 1. ‘A natural home in the ground,large enough for human entry’ is probablythe most useful definition. This coversthe enormous variety of caves that dooccur but eliminates the many artificialtunnels and galleries incorrectly namedcaves. The size criterion is arbitrary andsubjective, but practical, as it eliminatesnarrow openings irrelevant to explorersbut very significant hydrologically, thatmay be better referred to as proto-caves,sub-conduits or fissures. A cave may be asingle, short length of accessible passage,or an extensive and complex network oftunnels as long as the hundreds ofkilometers in the Flint Mammoth CaveSystem. Most caves are formed bydissolution in limestone but sandstonecaves, lava caves, glacier caves and

tectonic caves also occur. Marginalcandidates for use of the name caveinclude riverbank undercuts and rockshelters of various origins. In somecountries a cave is regarded as being ahorizontal opening, as opposed to apothole, which is a vertical opening. Thisusage is common in England but is notubiquitous[9]. 2. A natural openingformed in the rocks below the surface ofthe ground large enough for a man toenter. It may consist of a singleconnected opening or a series of small orlarge chambers connected by galleries[20]. 3. A similar artificial opening[10]. Relatedto cavern. Synonyms: (French.) grotte,caverne; (German.) Höhle, Grotte;(Greek.) speleon; (Italian.) caverna,grotta; (Russian.) pescera; (Spanish.)cueva; (Turkish.) ma™ara; (Yugoslavian.)pec #ina. pec #, pes #tera, spilja, zijjalka, jama. See also active cave; bedding cave; cavesystem; grotto; sea cave.

cave balloon. See cave blister.

cave blister. 1. A small pimplelike caveformation, roughly oval in shape, gener-ally loose, and having a core of mud[10]. 2. A partly or completely hollowhemispherical to nearly sphericalspeleothem, usually of gypsum orhydromagnesite, attached to a cave wall. Synonym: cave balloon.

cave breakdown. 1. Enlargement of partsof a cave system by fall of rock massesfrom walls and ceiling. 2. Heaps of rockthat have collapsed from the walls andceiling of a cave, generally called cavebreccia[10]. 3. Synonym for the collapse ofcaves, or, in American usage, for thedebris produced by collapse[18].

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cave breathing. A resonance phenomenonin which air currents throb back and forththrough constricted passages in a cavewith periodicity of a few seconds to a fewminutes. Synonyms: (French.) passagerespirant; (German.) Grotte mit Resonanz;(Greek.) anapneousa ope; (Italian.) grottaa soffio alterno; (Spanish.) grutaresonante; (Turkish.) ma™ara esintisi. Seealso blowing cave.

cave breccia. Angular fragments of rockforming a fill in a cave, either cementedtogether by dripstone or in a matrix ofcave earth[10]. See also solution breccia.

cave bubble. A nonattached hollow sphere,usually of calcite, that has formed arounda gas bubble on the surface of a cavepool.

cave coral. A rough, knobby growth of cal-cite resembling coral in shape, generallysmall; found on floor, walls, or ceiling ofa cave[10]. Synonym: botryoid; coral for-mation; cave popcorn. See alsoknobstone.

cave cotton. Thin flexible filaments ofgypsum or epsomite projecting from acave wall. Synonym: gypsum cotton. See also gypsum flower.

cave development. The inception of cavedevelopment in carbonate rocks begins ifwater can move through the bedrock andcommence dissolution. The earliestwater movement may be due tomechanisms (including ground-waterpumping and ionic diffusion effects)unrelated to those dominating laterdevelopment. Similarly, inception mayinclude physical and chemical dissolution

(involving removal of carbonates andmineral impurities by water and by strongacids), as well as by the carbonic aciddissolution that dominates later cavegrowth. Initial water movement can bealong primary pores in the rock (in coarseraffle limestones, oolites or chalk), alongrelatively thin non-carbonate beds withinthe succession, or along incipient or openfissures (joints, faults and beddingplanes). These potential water routes areinitially very narrow and water movement is severely restricted and laminar,allowing only very slow dissolutionalgrowth (see gestation), until enlargementbeyond the turbulent threshold(breakthrough) permits faster flow andaccelerated cave growth. Afterestablishment of turbulent flowconditions the effects of dissolution areaugmented by mechanical abrasion andcollapse, which expose new rock. Duringthe early development stages a network ofnarrow openings is formed. Subsequently, geological factors guide thepreferential expansion of favorableroutes, which capture more of the localflow and enlarge, at the expense of lessfavorable openings, to form caves. Theless favorable fissures are relegated to asubordinate role in transmittingpercolation water or, more rarely, incarrying elements of overflow waterduring floods. Also during the earlystages, all voids are water filled but aspermeability increases and true hydraulicflow conditions are established, the uppervoids drain freely, forming a water table. Almost all caves therefore originate underphreatic conditions but the overallpassage morphology is modified duringlater growth into vadose or phreatic caves,enlarged from the original phreatic

34

imprint, above or below the water table. Ultimately, cave development evolvestowards efficient drainage close to the watertable. Passage enlargement then becomesregressive as collapse increases. The stage ofa cavernous karst collapsing extensively isrelatively rarely achieved, being overtaken athigh latitudes and high altitudes by surfacelowering, but such collapse can contribute tothe chaotic land forms of tropical karst[9].

cave earth, cave fill. Insoluble deposits ofclay, silt, sand, or gravel flooring or fill-ing a cave passage. In a more restrictedsense, cave earth includes only the finerfractions: clay, silt, and fine sanddeposits[10]. Synonym: cave soil.

cave ecology. The study of the interactionbetween cave organisms and theirenvironment, e.g. energy input fromsurface, climatic influences[25].

cave fill. Transported materials such as silt,clay, sand and gravel which cover thebedrock floor or partially or wholly blocksome part of a cave[25].

cave flower. An elongate curved deposit ofgypsum or epsomite on a cave wall inwhich growth occurs at the attachedend[10]. Synonyms: gypsum flower;oulopholite. See also anthodite; cavecotton.

cave formations. 1. Secondary mineral de-posits formed by the accumulation, drip-ping, or flowing of water in a cave[10]. 2.Unsatisfactory term used to include allvarieties of calcite, gypsum and other,rarer, mineral cave deposits; therefore asynonym for the equally unwieldly

speleothem or the colloquial term‘stall’[9]. See also sinter; speleothem.

cave group. A number of caves or cavesystems, not interconnected but geo-graphically associated in some relieffeature or particular geological outcrop[10]. See also cave series.

cave guano. Accumulations of dung incaves, generally from bats; in some placespartially mineralized[10].

cave ice. Ice formed in a cave by naturalfreezing of water. Loosely but incorrectlyapplied to calcium carbonate dripstoneand flowstone[10].

cave-in. 1. The collapse of the ceiling orside walls of a cave or of the land surfaceinto a subterranean passage as a result ofundermining or of pressure from above[10]. 2. The partial or complete collapse ofearth material into a large undergroundopening, such as an excavation or a mine. 3. The sudden slumping of wall materialinto a pit. 4. A place where material hascollapsed or fallen in or down.

cave-in lake. A shallow body of waterwhose basin is produced by collapse ofthe ground following thawing of groundice in regions underlain by permafrost. Synonym: thermokarst lake.

cave lake. Any underground lake. Thewater can be in a partially drainedphreatic cave, and may then be theentrance to a sump, or it can be open overits entire surface. In vadose caves lakesare most commonly formed by pondingbehind banks of sediment or, in rarercases, behind very large gour barriers[9].

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cave marble. Banded deposit of calcite oraragonite capable of taking a highpolish[10]. See also flowstone; onyxmarble.

cave of debouchure. Outflow cave.

cave onyx. See onyx marble.

cave pearl. 1. Carbonate concretion,usually of calcite, that is spherical orirregular in shape, with an internalstructure of concentric banding round acentral grain. Pearls form in pools ofsaturated water disturbed by drippingwater, so that they are commonly foundbeneath high avens. Individual pearlsmay be lmm or many centimeters indiameter. Movement of the larger onesmay become impossible and they can thenbecome cemented to the pool floor. Some caves contain spectacular displaysof cave pearls; in Jackson’s Bay Cave,Jamaica, they cover large areas of passagefloor behind low gour barriers[9]. 2. Smallconcretion of calcite or aragonite formedby concentric precipitation around anucleus[10]. Synonyms: pisolite; pisolith;(French.) perle des cavernes; (German.)Höhlenperlen; (Greek.) speleomargarites;(Italian.) perle di grotta; (Russian.)pescernij zemcug; (Spanish.) perla decaverna; (Turkish.) ma™ara incisi;(Yugoslavian.) peƒinski biseri, jamskibiseri.

cave pisolite. See cave pearl.

cave popcorn. See cave coral.

cave postule. A white, hemispherical walland roof deposit of calcite[25].

cave raft. A thin mineral film, usually ofcalcite, floating on a cave pool.

Cave Research Foundation (CRF.) Anorganization of cavers united primarilyfor scientific exploration and study ofcaves[13].

cave spring. See spring, cave.

caver. (American.) 1. A slang term for onewho engages in the hobby of caveexploration, or caving[9, 21]. 2. A personwho explores caves in a safe mannerwhile showing respect for the cave (allaspects of the cave), other cavers, and theland above the cave[13]. Synonym:spelunker; (British.) potholer. See alsospeleologist.

cavern. 1. Underground opening in solublerock similar to a cave. When used as anoun, it refers to large openings, but whenused as an adjective it tends to refer torock texture and so to small openings. However, in some countries (e.g., Russia)cavern refers to small openings in arock[20]. 2. A synonym of cave with theimplication of large size. 3. A system orseries of caves or cave chambers. 4. Acave, often used poetically or to connotelarger-than-average size[10]. Synonyms:(French.) caverne; (German.) Höhle,Kaverne; (Greek.) speleon; (Italian.)caverna, grotta; (Russian.) kaverna;(Spanish.) caverna, cueva; (Turkish.)kovuk; (Yugoslavian.) kaverna. See alsocave.

cavern breakdown. The process of caveenlargement which depends upon themechanical failure and eventual collapse

36

of sections of the cavern walls andceiling[22].

cavern flow. Movement, often turbulent, ofground-water flow through caves, coarsesorted gravel, or large open conduits,either by gravity or under pressure.

cavernicole. An animal which normallylives in caves for the whole or part of itslife cycle[25].

cavernous. Adjective used to describe arock texture in which the rock containsopenings generally of a small size[20]. Synonyms: (French.) caverneux;(German.) kavernös; (Greek.) speleothes;(Italian.) con grotte; (Russian.)kavernoznij; (Spanish.) cavernoso;(Turkish.) kovuklu; (Yugoslavian.)kavernozan. See also cavern.

cavernous karren. Pitted, rubbly limestonemost commonly found in relatively recent and Tertiary limestones of the humidtropics[3]. See also covered karren;karren.

cavernous permeability. See conduitpermeability.

cavernous rock. Any rock that has manycavities, cells, or large interstices (e.g., acliff face pitted with shallow holesresulting from cavernous weathering).

cavernous weathering. Chemical andmechanical weathering on a cliff face, inwhich grains and flakes of rock areloosened so as to enlarge hollows andrecesses.

cavern porosity. A pore system havinglarge, cavernous openings. The lowersize limit, for field analysis, is practicallyset at approximately the smallest openingthat an adult person may enter.

cavern system. See cave system.

cave series. A group of caves of similarmorphology in a particular district[10]. Seealso cave group.

cave shield. A semicircular plate ofreprecipitated calcite located beneathjoints in a cavern ceiling and believed tobe formed by the seepage of hydrostaticwater along the joint. Two shields formbeneath one joint, descending from eachside of the opening[22].

cave soil. See cave earth.

cave spring. See spring, cave.

cave system. 1. An underground network ofpassages, chambers, or other cavities. 2.The caves in a given area related to eachother hydrologically, whether continuousor discontinuous from a single opening[10]. Synonyms: (French.) réseau souterrain;(German.) Höhlensystem; (Greek.)speleothes systema, thiction; (Italian.)sistema carsico sotterraneo; (Russian.)sistema podzemnih pescer; (Spanish.)sistema de cavidades; (Turkish.) ma™arasistemi, serisi; (Yugoslavian.) peƒinski(spiljski) sistem, amski sistem. See alsocave; cave group; cave series; cavern.

caving. The sport of exploring caves. Synonyms: (British.) potholing;spelunking. 2. A method of mining inwhich the ore is allowed to cave or fall[10].

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cavings. Rock fragments that fall from thewalls of a borehole and contaminate thewell cuttings or block the hole. Thesefragments must be removed by drilling orcirculation of drilling fluids before theborehole can be deepened.

cavitation. 1. The collapse of bubbles in afluid, caused by static pressure being lessthan the fluid vapor pressure. 2. Aphenomena of cavity formation, orformation and collapse, especially inregard to pumps, when the absolutepressure within the water reaches vaporpressure causing the formation of vaporpockets[6].

cavity. A solutional hollow in a limestonecave.

cavity dweller. A coelobitic organism.

ceiling block. Roughly cubical joint-bounded large block, which has fallenfrom the ceiling of a cave[10]. See alsocave breakdown; ceiling slab.

ceiling cavity. Solutional concavity in theceiling of a cave. The orientation isdetermined by joints or a beddingplane[10].

ceiling channel. Sinuous channeldeveloped in the ceiling of a cave,presumably during the phreatic phase ofcave development[10].

ceiling meander. A winding upside-downchannel in a cave ceiling[10].

ceiling pocket. See pocket.

ceiling slab, roof slab. A thin but extensivepiece of rock that has fallen from theceiling of a cave in roughly horizontallimestone[10]. See also cave breakdown;ceiling block.

ceiling tube. A half tube remaining in theceiling of a cave[10].

celestite. A cave mineral — SrSO4[11].

cement. A microscopic textured nonskeletalvoid-filling material precipitated on anintragranular or intrasedimentary freesurface that holds the material together[20]. Synonyms: (French.) ciment; (German.)Zement; (Greek.) tsiménto; (Italian.)cemento; (Spanish.) cemento; (Turkish.)çimento; (Yugoslavian.) vezivo cement.

cementation. The process of bindinggranular material together by depositionof cementing material at contact points ofgrains[16].

cement grout. Cement slurry of pumpableconsistency[16].

cement slurry. Liquid cementsuspension[16].

cementing. See grouting.

cenote. (Spanish. after Mayan tzonet ordzonot.) 1. Steep-walled natural well thatextends below the water table; generallycaused by collapse of a cave roof. Termused only for features in Yucatán[10]. 2.Steep or vertical sided collapse dolinefloored by a lake whose surface is at theregional water table. The term originatesfrom the many cenotes in the low karstplateau of Mexico’s Yucatan, but has

38

been applied to flooded dolines in Floridaand elsewhere. Probably the most famouscenote is the sacred well of Chichen Itza,Yucatan; it has vertical sides and is 60m indiameter, 30m deep and half full of water[9].Synonyms: (French.) cenote; (German.)cenote; (Greek.) voulismeno speleven. Seealso jama; natural well.

centrifuge moisture equivalent. Seemoisture equivalent.

cerussite. A cave mineral — PbCO3[11].

chain gage. Water level measuringdevice[16].

chalk. 1. Used as a proper noun chalkdescribes a rock unit of Cretaceous age,that consists predominately of relativelysoft, white, porous limestone with beds ofmarl and bands or nodules of flint. Theterm is used without its initial capital todescribe any rock with similar appearanceand properties. Generally chalk has arelatively high primary permeability andso rarely develops caves of explorablesize, though conduit-water flow doesoccur. Some harder chalks in northernFrance and south-eastern England holdexplorable active and relict caves, whichextend for many hundreds of meters[9]. 2.Soft poorly indurated limestone, generallylight in color; commonly composed of thetests of floating microorganisms in amatrix of very finely crystalline calcite[10].

chalcanthite. A cave mineral —CuSO4"5H2O[11].

chamber. (American.) 1. An enlargementin a cave passage or system, commonlyformed at a junction of passages, or

locally in a single passage, where erosion has been enhanced by collapse exposingmore rock to dissolution. Maximumchamber size is controlled by the strengthand shape of the limestone ceiling. Thelargest chamber currently known,Sarawak Chamber in Lubang NasibBagus, at Mulu, Sarawak, is over 700mlong, up to 400m wide and nowhere lessthan 70m high. It has formed where alarge stream eroded sideways as it cutobliquely across the included bedding inunusually massive limestone. It isdoubtful whether a much larger chambercould exist without collapse of its roof[9]. 2. The largest order of cavity in a cave orcave system; it has considerable lengthand breadth but not necessarily greatheight. 3. (British.) A room in a cave[10]. Synonyms: (French.) salle; (german.)Halle, Kammer, Dom; (Greek.) ypoyiosaethousa; (Italian.) sala; (Russian.) zal;(Spanish.) sala, salón; (Turkish.) oda;(Yugoslavian.) dvorana. See also room;passage.

chandelier. Large variety of gypsumflower, with branching crystal structurethat may hang many meters from a caveceiling. Very rare, except in LechuguillaCave of New Mexico[9].

channel. Natural or artificial watercoursebounded by banks[16].

channel characteristics. Hydraulicproperties of stream channel[16].

chasm. 1. A deep, fairly narrow breach inthe earth’s surface; an abyss; a gorge; adeep canyon. 2. A deep, wide, elongatedgap in the floor of a cave[10]. Related tocanyon, corridor. Synonyms: (French.)

39

gouffre, fracture ouverte; (German.) Kluft;(Greek.) chasma; (Italian.) fattura beante,canyon; (Spanish.) cañon, taso; (Turkish.)derin yar2nt2; (Yugoslavian.) provalija. See also ravine.

chemical carbonate rock. Carbonate rockform by the precipitation of mineralmatter in situ by chemical or biologicalprocesses.

chemical deposit. A sediment precipitatedout of solution by chemical action[16].

chemical erosion. Processes partiallysynonymous with chemical dissolution,but including any other form of rockbreakdown accelerated by chemicalchanges of the constituent minerals[9].

chemical equivalent. The expression ofwater characteristics such as hardness oralkalinity resulting from several ions insolution in terms of only one equivalentconcentration[16].

chemical mobility. The tendency of anelement to move in a givenhydrogeochemical environment[16].

chemical oxygen demand (COD.) Themeasure of readily available oxidizablematerial contained in a water sample[16].

chert, chert nodule. 1. Black, brown orgrey rock, consisting of very fine-grainedsilica, that occurs as horizons of nodulesand discontinuous bands, generally lessthan 200mm thick, within manylimestones. It is very hard and almostinsoluble in water, so commonly itprojects from cave walls where it formspassage or shaft ledges and waterfall

lips[9]. 2. Light-cream or gray to blackrock composed of silica, found occurringas nodules or layers in limestone, or as areplacement of limestone[10].

Chézy equation. An equation used tocompute the velocity of uniform flow inan open channel: mean velocity of flow(V) equals the Chézy coefficient © timesthe square root of the product of hydraulicradius in feet (R) times the slope of thechannel[1]. See also Froude number;Manning equation; Reynolds number.

chimney. 1. Nearly circular shaft risingupwards from the ceiling of a cavetowards the surface of the ground; if itdoes not reach the surface it is termed ablind chimney. If the chimney is formedmainly by solution, it is related to a dome-pit; if formed mainly by collapse of theroof along bedding planes, it is related tocenote[20]. 2. A narrow vertical shaft inthe roof of a cave, generally smaller thanan aven; a dome pit[10]. Synonyms:(French.) cheminée (aven); (German.)Schlot, Kamin; (Greek.) kapnothochos;(Italian.) camino; (Russian.) truba;(Spanish.) chimenea; (Turkish.) baca;(Yugoslavian.) dimnjak.

chimneying. Ascending or descending bymeans of opposed body and/or limbpressures against two facing walls[25].

chlorophyll. A group of pigmentsproducing the green color of plants;essential to photosynthesis[23].

chock. A block of metal for use as achockstone[25].

40

chockstone. A rock wedged between thewalls of a cave passage[10].

choke. 1. A blockage of inwashed mud,sand or boulders in a cave passage. Mostboulder chockes are formed by collapseof a passage roof and may have an openchamber or shaft above them; others areformed by collapse and inwashed debriswhere a large old passage is cut by ahillside. A passable route through achoke may be opened by excavation, andthereby lead to discovery of new passage— as was done so successfully in OgofAgen Allwedd[9]. 2. Rock debris or cavefill completely blocking a passage[10].

C-horizon. Zone of weathered parentmaterial in a soil profile[16].

chute. An inclined channel or trough in acave[10].

ciénaga. (Spanish.) Wetland. See alsowetland.

cimolite. A cave mineral —Al4(SiO2)9(OH)12

[11].

cistern. A small water reservoir used tocollect surface and rain water[16].

classical karst. Originally the region calledKras in Slovenia, which gave its name tothe karst landscape. Used in this senseabout 95% of the classical karst lies inSlovenia, with the remaining 5%extending to Italy. A slightly differentarea was covered by descriptions of earlyinvestigations or karst phenomena, whenthe name classical karst was applied to aregion between Ljubljana, Gorizia and

Rijeka, mainly in Slovenia with someparts in Italy and Croatia[9].

clastic. Pertaining to a rock or sedimentcomposed principally of brokenfragments that are derived from pre-existing rocks or minerals and that havebeen transported some distance from theirplaces of origin[6].

clastic carbonate rock. Carbonate rock thatis made up of carbonate grains (e.g.,shells, shell fragments, oolites).

clastic rock; detrital rock. A sedimentaryrock derived from fragmentated otherpreexisting rock or organic structures[16].

clastokarst. Karst phenomena in clasticrocks composed of detrital carbonatematerial[20]. Synonyms: (French.)clastokarst; (German.) Klastokarst?;(Greek.) clastokarst; (Italian.) carsismoclastico; (Russian.) klastokarst; (Spanish.)clastokarst; (Turkish.) klastik karst;(Yugoslavian.) klastokrs#, klastokras,klastokarst.

claustrophobia. An irrational fear of beingin a closed space[25].

clay. 1. A rock or mineral fragment or adetrital particle of any compositionsmaller than a very fine silt grain, havinga diameter less than 1/256 mm (4microns, or 0.00016 in., or 8 phi units.)This size is approximately the upper limitof size of particle that can show colloidalproperties. 2. A loose, earthy, extremelyfine-grained natural sediment or soft rockcomposed primarily of clay-size orcolloidal particles and characterized by aconsiderable content of clay minerals and

41

subordinate amounts of finely dividedquartz, decomposed feldspar, carbonates,ferruginous matter, and other impurities. Itforms a plastic, moldable mass when finelyground and mixed with water, but retains itsshape on drying, and becomes firm,rocklike, and permanently hard on heating orfiring. 3. A term that is commonly appliedto any soft, adhesive, fine-grained deposit(such as loam or siliceous silt) and to earthymaterial, particularly when wet (such asmud). 4. A term used by the InternationalSociety of Soil Science for a rock or mineralparticle in the soil, having a diameter lessthan 0.002 mm (2 microns).

clay ball, clayball. A chunk of clayreleased by erosion of a clayey bank androunded by wave action.

clay boil. A mud circle that suggests awelling-up or heaving of the central core.

clay colloid. 1. A clay particle having adiameter less than 1 micron (0.001 mm.)2. A colloidal substance consisting ofclay-size particles.

clay fill. Dry or wet clay that fills a cavepassage[10].

clay filling. Time interval between end ofphreatic solution of a cave and beginningor deposition of flowstone[10].

clayey sand. 1. An unconsolidatedsediment containing 50–90% sand andhaving a ratio of silt or clay less than 1:2.2. An unconsolidated sand containing40–75% sand, 12.5–50% clay, and 0–20%silt.

clayey silt. 1. An unconsolidated sedimentcontaining 40–75% silt, 12.5–50% clay,and 0–20% sand. 2. An unconsolidatedsediment containing more particles of siltsize than of clay size, more than 10%clay, and less than 10% of all othercoarser sizes.

clay loam. A soil containing 27–40% clay,20–45% sand, and the remainder silt.

clay marl. 1. A whitish, smooth, chalkyclay. 2. A marl in which claypredominates.

clay mineral. One of a complex and looselydefined group of finely crystalline,metacolloidal, or amorphous hydroussilicates, essentially of aluminum.

claypan. A dense, heavy, relativelyimpervious subsurface soil layer thatowes its hardness to a relatively higherclay content than that of the overlyingmaterial from which it is separated by asharply defined boundary.

clay parting. 1. Clayey material between avein and its wall. 2. A seam of hardenedcarbonaceous clay between or in beds ofcoal, or a thin layer of clay betweenrelatively thick beds of some other rock(e.g., sandstone).

clay plug. Fine flood deposits in a cut offriver meander[16].

clean sand. Sand with little or no claycontent[16].

cleavage. The tendency to cleave or splitalong definite parallel planes, which maybe highly inclined to the bedding. It is a

42

secondary structure and is ordinarilyaccompanied by at least somerecrystallinization of the rock.

climate. The average weather conditions ofan area, including temperature, rainfall,humidity, wind, and hours of sunlight,based on records kept for many years[23].

climatic factor. A factor influencinghydrologic parameters due to the localclimate[16].

clinometer. An instrument for measuringvertical angles or angles of dip[25].

clint. (British.) 1. Flat or sloping barelimestone outcrops (limestonepavements) weathered into straight-sidedor furrowed blocks and ridges oflimestone which are separated by deepclefts or solutionally widened joints(grikes) that often crisscross[20]. 2. Slabsof limestone, parallel to the bedding,forming a pavement. Widened joints, orgrikes, isolate individual clints[10]. Synonym: (French.) lapiaz; (German.)Flachkarren, Karrenfeld; (Greek.) pethionamaxotrochion thactyloglyphon; (Italian.)campo carreggiato; (Russian.) karrovoepole; (Spanish.) campo de lapiaz, lenar;(Turkish.) pürtüklü, oluklu;(Yugoslavian.) škrapari, škraplje. Seealso grikes; karrenfeld; lapies; limestonepavement.

clog, to. The action of blocking fluid flowpaths, especially around a well bore[16].

clogger. A type of ascender without ahandle; used with a karabiner to keep itsecurely on the rope[25].

closed depression, closed basin. 1. Anykarst hollow with internal drainage,including dolines, uvalas, poljes, cockpitsand all varieties of blind karst valleys, ofboth small and large scales[9]. 2. Ageneral term for any enclosed topographicbasin having no external drainage,regardless of origin or size[10].

closed karst. A karst terrane that is coveredby sediments. Synonyms: (Russian.)skryty0 karst or zakryty0 karst. See alsoburied karst; interstratal karst; mantledkarst.

closed traverse. A traverse which beginsand ends at survey points with knownco-ordinates and orientation or at thesame point[25].

cloud. Large masses of coralloid orbotryoidal calcite, deposited under water,with each mass reaching 200–800mm indiameter. Famous examples hang abovethe Lake of the Clouds in CarlsbadCavens, New Mexico[9].

clusterite. See botryoid.

coarse. Composed of or constitutingrelatively large particles.

coarse sand. 1. A geologic term for a sandparticle having a diameter in the range of0.5–1 mm (500–1000 microns, or 1 tozero phi units.) 2. An engineering termfor a sand particle having a diameter inthe range of 2 mm. 3. A soil term used inthe U.S. for a sand particle having adiameter in the range of 0.5–1 mm (thediameter range recognized by theInternational Society of Soil Science is0.2–2 mm).

43

coarse silt. A geologic term for a siltparticle having a diameter in the range of1/32 to 1/16 mm (31–62 microns, or 5 to4 phi units).

cockpit. (Jamaican.) 1. Any closeddepression having steep sides. 2. Astar-shaped depression having a conicalor a lightly concave floor. Thesurrounding hill slopes are steep andconvex. Cockpits are the common typeof closed depressions in a kegelkarst[10].

cockpit karst. (Jamaican.) 1. Termdescribing an area containing numerousscattered, yet closely spaced dolines;generally a tropical karst land form. Thecorresponding Yugoslav term may moreaccurately be translated as ‘pock-marked’karst. 2. Tropical karst topographycontaining many closed depressionssurrounded by steep-sided conical hills. Divided by French and Germangeographers into several types dependingon shape of hills[10]. Synonyms: (French.)karst cockpit; (German.) Turmkarst,Kegelkarst; (Greek.) dolinovrithes karst;(Italian.) campo carsico a doline;(Spanish.) karst esponja; (Turkish.)düdenli karst; (Yugoslavian) boginjavikrÑ, kozavi kras. See also cone karst;Halbkugelkarst; Kegelkarst;Spitzkegelkarst; tower karst.

coefficient of compressibility. Compressibility is the aptitude of the soilto be deformed. It is expressed by meansof a coefficient which is the ratio betweena void ratio decrease from e0 to e and anincrease in effective stress. The value av= e0–e)p represents the coefficient ofcompressibility for the range p0 to p0 + p.

Units are usually cm2/kg[21]. See alsocoefficient of volume compressibility.

coefficient of permeability. An obsoleteterm that has been replaced by the termhydraulic conductivity[6].

coefficient of storage. See storagecoefficient.

coefficient of transmissivity; coefficient oftransmissibility. An obsolete termreplaced by the term transmissivity.

coefficient of volume compressibility. Thecompression of a clay (aquitard) per unitthickness, due to a unit increase ofeffective stress, in the load rangeexceeding preconsolidation stress. It isexpressed by the equation

in which e0 is the initial void ratio. Unitsare usually cm2/kg[21]. See also coefficientof compressibility.

cohesion. Shear resistance at zero normalstress. An equivalent term in rockmechanics is intrinsic shear strength.

coliform organism. A microorganism, theconcentration of which is used as anindication of the degree of biologicalpollution of water[16].

collapse breccia. A mass of rock composedof angular to rounded fragments oflimestone or dolomite that has formed asthe result of the collapse of the roof of acave, of an underlying cave, or of an

44

overhanging ledge[10]. See also solutionbreccia.

collapse chamber. An undergroundchamber containing notable quantities ofcollapsed material. The term iscommonly abused in describing the originof cave chambers floored by collapsedebris. Though wall and roof collapse arecommon modifying processes in largerchambers, it is important to rememberthat such collapse cannot form a chamber,as it can only take place into a pre-existing cavity[9].

collapse sink; collapse sinkhole. 1. Avariety of closed depression that forms bycollapse of the rock above an existingcave passage or chamber[9]. 2. A closeddepression formed by the collapse of theroof of a cave[10]. See also doline.

collapse of caves. Collapse and breakdownof cave walls and ceilings are continuingaspects of cave development andmodification. Massive unfracturedlimestone can easily span a void of over100m, but thinly bedded, closely jointed,faulted or poorly lithified limestone maycollapse into very small passages. Collapse is a significant component ofcave erosion. As well as simple falls ofunsupported rock forming connectionsbetween passages, the collapse processexposes more rock surface area forpotential dissolution. As rates of collapseare measured on a geological time scalecollapse in natural caves offers anegligible threat to explorers, incomparison to the dangers of roofcollapse in mines[9].

collector well. A central well withhorizontal sections of screened collectorpipe arranged radially to increase yield[16].

colloid. Extremely small solid particles,0.0001 to 1 micron in size, which will notsettle out of solution. It is intermediatebetween a true dissolved particle and asuspended solid which will settle out ofsolution[6].

column. 1. A subsurface dripstoneformation produced by the union of astalactite and a stalagmite in a cave[20]. 2.A flowstone formation, generallycylindrical, formed by the union of astalactite and stalagmite[10]. Not to beconfused with pillar. Synonyms:(French.) colonne, pillier stalamitique;(German.) Tropfstein-Säule; (Greek.)stalaktitike stele; (Italian.) colonna(stalagmitica o stalattitica) (Russian.)kolonna; (Spanish.) columna; (Turkish.)sütun; (Yugoslavian.) stup, steber, stolpic#. See also pillar.

comminution. The reduction of a substanceto a fine powder; pulverization;trituration.

community. All the plants and animals thatlive in a particular habitat and are boundtogether by food chains and otherinterrelations[23].

compaction. A decrease in the volume of amass of sediments from any cause. Ingeneral, compaction may be regarded asthe decrease in the thickness ofsediments, as a result of an increase invertical compressive stress, and issynonymous with ‘one-dimensionalconsolidation,’ as used by engineers. The

45

term compaction is applied both to theprocess and to the measured change inthickness. In thick fine-grained beds,compaction is a delayed process involvingthe slow escape of pore water and thegradual transfer of stress from neutral toeffective. Until sufficient time has passedfor excess pore pressure to decrease to zero,measured values of compaction aretransient[21]. See also compaction, residual;compaction, specific.

compaction, residual. Compaction thatwould occur ultimately if a given increasein applied stress were maintained untilsteady-state pore pressures were achieved,but had not occurred as of a specifiedtime because excess pore pressures stillexisted in beds of low diffusivity in thecompacting system. It can also beregarded as the difference between (1) theamount of compaction that will occurultimately for a given increase in appliedstress, and (2) that which has occurred ata specified time[21]. See also compaction;compaction, specific.

compaction, specific. The decrease inthickness of deposits, per unit of increasein applied stress, during a specific periodof time[21]. See also compaction;compaction, residual.

compass. An instrument with a magneticneedle which is free to point to magneticnorth. For survey the needle is eitherattached to a graduated card or can beread against a graduated circle to measurethe angle in degrees from the northclockwise[25].

competition. The struggle betweenindividuals or groups of living things for

common necessities, such as food orliving space[23].

complete well penetration, fullypenetrating. 1. The property of a wellthat penetrates an aquifer completely fromthe upper confining bed or water table tothe lower confining bed[16]. 2. A well thatis completed over the whole thickness ofthe aquifer to allow radial production overits entire completed length[16].

compressibility. The relative change involume with pressure of water or aquifermatrix[16].

compressive stress. Normal stress tendingto shorten the body in the direction inwhich it acts.

compromise boundary. 1. A planeinterface between two crystals whichevolved by mutual interference of theirrespective growing faces. This interfaceis a face of neither crystal. 2. Amicroscopic texture[20].

concentration gradient. The change insolute concentration per unit distance insolute. Concentration gradients causeFickian diffusion (spreading) of solutesfrom regions of highest to regions oflowest concentrations. In slowingmoving ground water, this is thedominant mixing process[22].

concretion. The localized deposition ofmineral matter going out of solution insediments or tuffs, usually nodular orirregular in shape[16].

condensation. The transition from vapor toliquid state[16].

46

condensation nucleus. A small solidparticle around which condensationoccurs[16].

condensation water. Atmospheric moisturedeposited inside caves when the surfacetemperature of the exposed rock fallsbelow the dew point of circulating air[19].

conduit; karst conduit. Relatively largedissolutional voids, including enlargedfissures and tubular tunnels; in someusage the term is restricted to voids thatare water-filled. Conduits may include allvoids greater than 10mm in diameter, butanother classification scheme places thembetween arbitrary limits of 100mm to10m. Whichever value is accepted in aparticular context, smaller voids arecommonly termed sub-conduits[9]. Synonyms: (French.) conduite forcée;(German.) Druckleitung (Leitung);(Greek.) siphon; (Italian.) condottaforzata; (Spanish.) conducto saturado;(Turkish.) yeralt2su yolu, mecra. See alsopressure flow tube; stream tube; siphon.

conduit flow; karst conduit flow. Underground water flow within conduits. Conduit flow is generally turbulent, butcan also be laminar[9].

conduit permeability. Sometimes referredto as cavernous permeability, this is ameasure of the efficiency with which aparticular aquifer transmits water throughconduits (see permeability)[9].

conduit porosity. That part of the porositywithin an aquifer (usually a karst aquifer)that is a function of the presence ofconduits [9].

cone of depression. A depression of thepotentiometric surface in the shape of aninverted cone that develops around a wellthat is being pumped. It defines the areaof influence[6]. Synonym: cone ofpressure relief (applied to artesianaquifers only).

cone of impression. A rise of thepotentiometric surface in the shape of acone that develops around an injectionwell[22].

cone karst. 1. A karst landscape dominatedby low conical (or hemispherical) hillsthat forms only in wet tropical climates. The type example is Gunung Sewu inJava. Individual hills are remarkablyuniform, each some few hundred metersin diameter and around 50m high. Between them lie broken valleys, dolinesor cockpits, draining into sinkholes. Erosion that seems to be initiated invalley systems develops in such a waythat the valleys break up into dolines, butthe mechanisms leading to uniformshaping of the hills are not fullyunderstood. The widespread cone karst inChina is mostly known as fengcong, andits hills are generally more conical thanhemispherical in profile[9]. 2. A type ofkarst topography, common in the tropics,characterized by star-shaped depressionsor dolines at the feet of many steep-sidedcone-shaped hills; narrow steeply-walledvalleys may be present[10, 20]. A variety ofKegelkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst àpitons; (German.) Kegelkarst, Turmkarst;(Greek.) konoethes karst; (Italian.) carsodi torri, carsismo con forme residualiconiche; (Russian.) karst s koniceskimiostancami; (Spanish.) karst de conos;(Turkish.) konili karst; (Yugoslavia.)

47

stoñasti krš, …okasti kras stoñ…sti, kras. See also cockpit karst. Compare: cupolakarst, pinnacle karst, and tower karst.

confined. A modifier which describes acondition in which the potentiometricsurface is above the top of the aquifer[22]. Synonymous with artesian.

confined aquifer. 1. An aquifer boundedabove and below by confining units ofdistinctly lower permeability than that ofthe aquifer itself. 2. An aquifercontaining confined ground water. Generally, a confined aquifer is subject topressure greater than atmospheric[6].

confined water. Water separated from theatmosphere by impermeable rockstratum[16].

confining bed. A body of impermeable ordistinctly less permeable materialstratigraphically adjacent to one or moreaquifers[22]. Synonymous with confiningunit.

confining unit. 1. A hydrogeologic unit ofimpermeable or distinctly less permeablematerial bounding one or more aquifersand is a general term that replacesaquitard, aquifuge, aquiclude[22]. 2.Means a body of impermeable ordistinctly less permeable materialstratigraphically adjacent to one or moreaquifers[22]. Synonymous with confiningbed.

confining zone. A geological formation,group of formations, or part of aformation that is capable of limiting fluidmovement above an injection zone[22]. See confining unit.

confluence. Junction point of streams[16].

conformal mapping. The transposition andsolution of plane flow problems in acomplex plane[16].

conglomerate. Rock consisting of largewell rounded waterworn particles[16].

conical wall niche. See meander niche.

conjugate joints or faults. Two sets ofjoints or faults that are formed under thesame stress conditions (usually shearpairs).

conjunctive use. The use of both surfacewater and ground water[16].

connate water. Water entrapped in theinterstices of a sedimentary or extrusiveigneous rock at the time of itsdeposition[22].

consequent river. A river flowing downthe original slope of geologic beds orgeneral slope of topography[16].

conservation. The use of natural resourcesin a way that assures their continuingavailability to future generations; the wiseuse of natural resources.

consolidation. 1. The binding of grains bycementing material to solid matrix[16]. 2.The gradual reduction in the watercontent (void ratio) of a saturated soil, asa result of an increase in the pressureacting on it, because of the addition ofoverlying sediments or the application ofan external load. A laboratory testcommonly known as a one-dimensionalconsolidation test (odometric test), is

48

performed on soil samples to evaluateconsolidation. From such a test, thecoefficient of consolidation, cv usuallyexpressed in cm2/sec, is calculated as theratio

where K is the hydraulic conductivity, mvis the coefficient of volumecompressibility, and (w is the unit weightof water. The theory of consolidationleads to a relation between degree ofconsolidation and time:

In this expression U is the degree ofconsolidation or the percentage of totalconsolidation occurring in some time t; cvis the coefficient of consolidation; and His half of the sample’s thickness when theodometric test is performed[21].

consolidated rock. Rock that has becomehard and coherent through compressionand lithification[16].

constant-temperature zone. The area of acave where air temperature is unchangingthroughout the year and approximates theaverage annual temperatureaboveground[23]. See also zonation.

constructive waterfall. A large rimstonedam on a surface stream[10]. See rimstonedam. Synonyms: (French.) chuteincrustante; (German.) Waßerfall,inkrustierender?, Sinter...?, Sinterbecken;(Greek.) katarráktis; (Italian.) (vasched’incrostazione); (Spanish.) dique

travertínico; (Turkish.) düÕüm;(Yugoslavian.) slap, prec #aga.

consumer. Any living thing that is unableto manufacture food from nonlivingsubstances, but depends instead on theenergy stored in other living things[23]. See also carnivore; decomposers; foodchain; herbivore; omnivore; producers.

consumptive use. The quantity of waterused annually by crops or naturalvegetation due to transpiration, tissuebuilding, and evaporation from adjacentsoil[16].

contact load. The solid material in slidingor rolling contact with a stream bed[16].

contact spring. See spring, contact.

contaminant. 1. An undesirable substancenot normally present or an unusually highconcentration of a naturally occurringsubstance in water or soil[22]. 2. Anyphysical, chemical, biological, orradiological substance or matter inwater[22]. See also pollutant.

contaminant plume. An elongated body ofground water containing contaminants,emanating and migrating from a pointsource within a hydrogeologic unit(s)[22].

contaminate. To introduce a substance thatwould cause (a) the concentration of thatsubstance in the around water to exceedthe maximum contaminant levels; or (b)an increase in the concentration of thatsubstance in the ground water where theexisting concentration of that substanceexceeds the maximum contaminantlevels[22]. See also pollutant.

49

contamination. The addition to water of

any substance or property preventing theuse or reducing the usability of the water. There is no specific limits, since thedegree of permissible contaminationdepends upon the intended end use, oruses, of the water[6]. Sometimesconsidered synonymous with pollution.

continuous stream. A stream that iscontinuous in space from source todischarge point[16].

contributing region. That region whichcontributes to well discharge in inclinedwater-table flow[16].

control. The combined effect of channelcharacteristics (area, shape, slope,roughness) on rating curve[16].

conulite. A hollow, cone-shaped speleo-them formed when a conical depression isdrilled in cave mud by falling water. Subsequent erosion may remove the mud,isolating the calcite lining of thedepression[10].

convective diffusion. See mechanicaldispersion, coefficient.

convective transport. The component ofmovement of heat or mass induced bythermal gradients in ground water[22]. Seealso advection.

convection. The process whereby heat iscarried along with the flowing groundwater[22].

convergence. Net horizontal inflow ofmoisture per unit area[16].

cooling water. Water used only for coolingpurposes[16].

cool spring. Spring water temperaturebelow mean annual surfacetemperature[16].

coprolite. The fossilized excrement ofvertebrates such as fishes, reptiles, anmammals, larger than a fecal pellet,measuring up to 20 cm in length,characterized by an ovoid to elongateform, a surface marked by annularconvolutions, and a brown or black color,and often composed largely of calciumphosphate; petrified excrement[1].

coprophage. A scavenger which feeds onanimal dung, including guano[25].

coquina. Porous limestone composed ofbroken shell fragments[16].

coralloid speleothem. Any variety ofmicrocrystalline, coralloid or botryoidalcalcite deposit that is distinguished bycurved outer surfaces and curved internalstructures. Large examples, includingclouds, are formed under water. Smallervarieties, also known as cave coral andcave popcorn, are splash deposits, or areprecipitated onto cave passage walls frommists or thin surface films of saturatedwater[9].

corrasion. Mechanical erosion performedby such moving agents as water, ice, andwind, especially when armed with rockfragments[10]. See also corrosion.

corridor. 1. Long, narrow chasm enlargedby action of water and into which surfacerunoff or stream may flow; may be

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located along a fault plane, fissure, jointor between two beds. Struga (Slavic)refers to such a corridor along a beddingplane in a carbonate formation[20]. 2.Relatively narrow passageway permittingtravel between two larger areas. 3. Afairly level and straight passage that linkstwo or more rooms or chambers in a cave. 4. Intersecting linear depressions on thesurface of the land, related to joints ordikes[10]. See also bogaz; struga; zanjón. Related to chasm; bogaz. Synonyms:(French.) gouffre absorbant; (German.)Karstgaße; (Greek.) apocheteftikoskarstikos agogos; (Italian.) dolinaallongata; (Russian.) coridor, hod;(Spanish.) callejón; (Turkish.) koridor;(Yugoslavian.) struga, bogaz.

corrasion. Abrasion of the rock floor andwalls of a stream channel by rock debriscarried in the water[9].

corrosion. 1. Chemical action of watercontaining carbonic acid (also humidic,nitric, and other acids) on limestones anddolomites causing partial solution andrelated chemical changes in the rocks[20]. 2. Erosion by solution or chemicalaction[10]. 3. The act or process ofdissolving or wearing away metals[6]. Seealso accelerated corrosion; alluvialcorrosion; corrasion; solution. Compareaggressive water. Synonyms: (French.)corrosion; (German.) Korrosion; (Greek.)chemeke thiavroses; (Italian.) dissoluzione,corrosione; (Russian.) korrozija;(Spanish.) corrosión; (Turkish.) eritme,yenme, kemirilme; (Yugoslavian.)korozija.

corrosive. Property of aggressive water.

coupole. (French.) Cupola or hemispherichill[10].

cove. (Southern Appalachians.) Narrowsteep-sided karst valley flankinglimestone plateaus[10].

covered karren. Any karren that is coveredby soil. Draining water is oversaturatedwith respect to CO2 so that corrosion isextensive[3]. See also wave karren; rootkarren; cavernous karren.

covered karst. 1. A fossil or currentlydeveloping karst in karst limestone whichunderlies superficial deposits or otherrock, and which may produce landformsat the surface which reflect subsurfacekarstification[19]; contrasted with nakedkarst, which is soil free. See also buriedkarst; interstratal karst; mantled karst;subsoil karst; sulfate-reduction karst. 2.A generally subdued karst landscapedeveloped where carbonate rocks areaffected by dissolutional processesbeneath a soil cover (see bare karst)[9].Synonyms: (French.) karst couvert;(German.) Bedeckter karst; (Greek.)kekalymenon karst; (Italian.) carsocoperto; (Russian.) pokryty0 karst, pokritijkarst; (Spanish.) karst cubierto; (Turkish.)örtülü karst; (Yugoslavian.) pokriveni krš,pokriti kras.

cow’s tail. A length of rope used as a safetywhen crossing a rebelay[25].

crack. 1. Tight joint[16]. 2. A small fracture(i.e. small with respect to the scale of thefeature in which it occurs).

crandallite. A cave mineral —CaAl3(PO4)2(OH)5"H2O[11].

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crawl, crawlway. A cave passage that islarge enough to be negotiated on handsand knees[10] or so small as to require acaver to squeeze through on his/her backor belly[13].

creek, brook. Watercourse of lesservolume than a river.

crescentic wall niche. See meander niche.

crest line. Line connecting crests[16].

crest segment. The top part of ahydrograph[16].

crest-stage indicator. A mechanical gagethat preserves the indication of highestwater level rise[16].

crevice. Opening in a rock formation orglacier[16].

crevice karst. An intricate irregular crevicesystem that has formed by solutionwidening of closely spaced joints. Crevices may be as much as 6 metersacross and 20 meters deep. Especiallywell developed near rivers in lowlandNew Guinea[10].

critical depth. The depth of flow in openchannels when specific energy isminimum[16].

critical depth flume. Venturi or Parshallflume for discharge measurements[16].

critical flow. Open channel flow withFroude Number equal to unity[16]. Seealso Froude Number.

crooked hole. Borehole deflected from thevertical[16].

cross bedding. Oblique deposition of thinbeds with respect to the main planes ofstratification[16].

cross fault. A geologic fault that is obliqueor at right angles to the strike direction ofthe beds.

cross section. 1. Vertical section of ageologic profile[16]. 2. A section of a cavepassage or a chamber across its width[25].

crust stone. A fragile layer of flowstonecovering portions of walls of caves; lookslike a flaky crust. Found in someKentucky caves[10].

crustaceans. The large class of animals thatincludes lobsters, crayfish, amphipods,isopods, and many similar forms. Crustaceans typically live in water andhave many jointed appendages,segmented bodies, and hardexoskeletons[23].

cryokarst. 1. A non-karstic term. Landsurface with closed depression (usuallysmall and shallow) formed by alternatefreezing and thawing of permafrost orground-ice overlying different rock,including limestone. The term ‘cryokarst’is more common in Europe while the term‘thermokarst’ is used in America[20]. 2. Akarst-like periglacial, or formerlyperiglacial, landscape superimposed uponunconsolidated, superficial deposits. Cryokarst is characterized by smalldepressions or pits that develop due tosettlement of overlying deposits intovoids formed by the melting of entrapped

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ice. Also known as thermokarst[9]. Synonyms: (French.) cryokarst,thermokarst; (German.) Thermokarst,Cryokarst; (Greek.) thermokarst; (Italian.)criocarsismo; (Russian.) temokarst,criokarst; (Spanish.) criokarst,thermokarst; (Turkish.) don karst2;(Yugoslavian.) toplotni krs#, temokarst.

cryptokarst. A karst term used to describe(a) the result of subsurface removal oflimestone taking place beneath permeableloess resulting in a loss of limestone andsubsequent slow subsidence of the loesswithout noticeable surface expression, (b)the initial effects of intergranular solutionof rock when there is practically nomovement of water from microcavity tomicrocavity, (c) the karst that develops inchalk beneath a mantle of its residual clayand chert, and (d) pockets in limestonewhich are filled with terra rossa or otherresidual material and which may beactively forming, arrested indevelopment, or ‘inherited’. Because thisterm has been used for at least fourdifferent meanings, it is recommendedthat it be abandoned[17].

cryptozoa. The assemblage of smallterrestrial animals found living indarkness beneath stones, logs, bark, etc.Potential colonizers of caves[25].

crystal cave. A cave in which much of thesurface of the roof, walls, and floor iscovered with well-formed mineralcrystals[10].

crystal pool. In caves a pool, generallyhaving little or no overflow, containingcrystals[10].

cuesta, hogback. A nonsymetrical ridgedue to a gently dipping stratum[16].

cueva. (Spanish.) Cave, especially one thatis horizontal or nearly so[10].

cul-de-sac; dead end. A subterranean pas-sage having only one entry[10].

cumulative production. The sum total ofvolumetric discharge of a well sinceproduction began[16].

cupola. A hemispheric hill of limestone[10]. See also cone karst; cupola karst; mogote;pinnacle karst; tower karst. Synonyms:(French.) cupole; (German.) Halbkugel.

cupola karst. A type of karst topographycommon in the tropics in which theresidual hills rise in hemispherical ordome-capped mounds from interveningdepressions or sinkholes[20]. See alsocone karst; cupola; pinnacle karst; towerkarst. Synonyms: (French.) karst àcupules, coupole; (German.) Kegelkarst;(Greek.) konoidhes karst; (Italian.)carsismo con forme residuali a cupola;(Spanish.) karst de cupulas; (Turkish.)kubbeli karst; (Yugoslavian.) kupolni krs#(kras).

cupula (plural cupulae). A jellylike rodprojecting into the water from aneuromast, part of a fish's or amphibian'slateral line system. Vibrations in thewater cause the cupula to move, thussetting off nervous impulses that enablethe animal to detect nearby movements inthe water[23]. [Not to be confused withcupola.]

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current marking. Shallow asymmetricalhollows, caused by turbulent waterflow,that are distributed in rather regularfashion over limestone surfaces[10]. Seealso scallop.

current meter, current counter. A deviceused to measure the current velocitydirectly at a given point[16]. Synonym:ammeter.

curtain. 1. Sinuous, thin sheet (or sheets) ofdripstone formed on the roof or walls of acave or behind a waterfall[20]. 2. A wavyor folded sheet of flowstone hanging fromthe roof or projecting from the wall of acave; often translucent and resonant[10]. See also bacon; blanket; drapery. Relatedto helictite and speleothem. Synonyms:(French.) draperie stalagmitique;(German.) Sinterfahne; (Greek.)parapetasma stalaktitikon; (Italian.)cortina stalattitica; (Russian.) zanavesj;(Spanish.) bandera, cortina; (Turkish.)perde; (Yugoslavian.) sigasta zavjesa,sigasta zavesa.

curve, backwater. A water surface profilein a stream or channel above aconstriction or impoundment[16].

curve, concentration. The rising limb on ahydrograph curve[16].

curve, desorption. Curve of moisturecontent verses soil moisture tension[16].

curve, drawdown. A plot of drawdownwith radial distance from a well[16].

curve fitting. The fitting of experimentaldata points to a theoretical type curve[16].

cutter. 1. (Tennessee.) Solution crevice inlimestone underlying residual phosphatedeposits. 2. A karren-like groove formedbeneath the soil, more commonly referredto as subsoil karren[10]. See also karren.

cuttings. Rock chips loosened from thebottom of a borehole by drilling[16].

cyanotrichite. A cave mineral —Cu4Al2(SO4)(OH)12"2H2O[11].

cycle. Regular periodic occurrence of anevent[16].

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REFERENCES

1. Bates, R. L. and J. A. Jackson. 1980.Glossary of Geology. AmericanGeological Institute. Falls Church, Va.751 pp.

2. Bear, J. 1979. Hydraulics of Groundwater.McGraw-Hill Inc. New York, NY. 569pp.

3. Bögli, A. 1980. Karst Hydrology andPhysical Speleology. Springer-Verlag.Berlin, West Germany. 284 pp.

4. Daoxian, Y. 1985. New Observations onTower Karst. Paper presented at the 1stInternational Conference onGeomorphology (Manchester, England).14 pp.

5. Dreybrodt, W. 1988. Processes in KarstSystems: Physics, Chemistry, andGeology. Springer-Verlag. New York,N.Y. 288 pp.

6. Driscoll, F. G. 1986. Groundwater andWells. Johnson Division. St. Paul, Minn.1089 pp.

7. Ford, D. C. and P. W. Williams. 1989.Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology.Unwin Hyman Inc. Lakeland, Fla. 601 pp.

8. Jennings, J. N. 1985. KarstGeomorphology. Basil Blackwell Inc.New York, N.Y. 293 pp.

9. Lowe, D. and T. Waltham. 1995. ADictionary of Karst and Caves: A BriefGuide to the Terminology and Conceptsof Cave and Karst Science. Cave Studies

Series Number 6. British Cave ResearchAssociation. London, Britain. 41 pp.

10. Monroe, W. H. (Compiler). 1970. AGlossary of Karst Terminology.Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper1899-K. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S.Government Printing Office. Washington,D.C. 26 pp.

11. Moore, G. W. and G. N. Sullivan. 1978.Speleology: The Study of Caves. CaveBooks. 2nd Edition. St. Louis, Missouri.150 pp.

12. Mylroie, J. E. 1984. Hydrologicclassification of caves and karst.Groundwater as a Geomorphic Agent. R.G. LaFleur, Editor. Allen & Unwin. Inc.Boston, Mass. pp. 157–172.

13. NSS. 1982. Glossary of caving termsused in this manual. Caving Basics. J.Hassemer, Editor. National SpeleologicalSociety. Huntsville, Ala. pp. 124–125.

14. Palmer, A. N. 1972. Dynamics of asinking stream system: OnesquethawCave, New York. National SpeleologicalSociety Bulletin. 34. pp. 89–110.

15. Palmer, A. N. 1981. A Geological Guideto Mammoth Cave National Park.Zephyrus Press. Teaneck, N.J. 196 pp.

16. Pfannkuch, H. O. 1971. Elsevier’sDictionary of Hydrogeology. AmericanElsevier Publishing Company. Inc. NewYork, N.Y. 168 pp.

17. Quinlan, J. F. 1978. Types of Karst withEmphasis on Cover Beds in theirClassification and Development.

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Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. TheUniversity of Texas at Austin. 323 pp.

18. Quinlan, J. F., P. L. Smart, G. M.Schindel, E. C. Alexander, A. J. Edwards,and A. Richard Smith. 1991.Recommended administrative/regulatorydefinition of karst aquifer, principles forclassification of carbonate aquifers,practical evaluation of vulnerability ofkarst aquifers, and determination ofoptimum sampling frequency at springs.Hydrology. Ecology. Monitoring. andManagement of Ground Water in KarstTerranes Conference (3rd. Nashville.Tenn. 1991). J. F. Quinlan and A.Stanley, Editors. National Ground WaterAssociation. Dublin, Ohio. pp. 573–635.

19. Sweeting, M. M. 1973. KarstLandforms. Selected Glossary. Compiledby K. Addison. Columbia UniversityPress. New York, N.Y. 362 pp.

20. UNESCO. 1972. Glossary andMultilingual Equivalents of Karst Terms.United Nations Educational. Scientific.and Cultural Organization. Paris, France.72 pp.

21. UNESCO. 1984. Guidebook to Studiesof Land Subsidence due to Ground-Waterwithdrawal. Prepared for the InternationalHydrological Programme. WorkingGroup 8.4. J. F. Poland, Editor. UnitedNations Education. Scientific andCultural Organization. Paris, France. 305pp. (plus appendices).

22. USGS. (date ?). Federal Glossary ofSelected Terms: Subsurface-Water Flowand Solute Transport. Prepared by theSubsurface-Water Glossary Working

Group. Ground-Water Subcommittee.Interagency Advisory Committee onWater Data. Dept. of the Interior. U.S.Geological Survey. Office of Water DataCoordination. 38 pp.

23. William R. Elliott, Ph.D. of the NaturalHistory Division of the MissouriDepartment of Conservation. The list ofdefinitions were obtained directly fromthe Biospeleology web site:

www.utexas.edu/depts/tnhc/.www/biospeleology

which is based on The Life of the Cave byCharles E. Mohr and Thomas L. Poulson(1966, McGraw-Hill) with additions fromDr. Elliott.

24. Clark, I. and P. Fritz. 1997.Environmental Isotopes in Hydrology.Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Fla. p.174.

25. Australian Speleological Federation.1996. Cave and Karst Terminology. Thelist of definitions were obtained directlyfrom the Western Australia Speleologyweb site:

http://wasg.iinet.net.au/terminol.html

which contains a listing of terminologycommonly used in Australia.