Capstone - Final Version - Robbert Bosscher - i548367-1

The Shape of the 21st Century Labour Market

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The Shape of the 21st Century Labour Market:

Analysing the Call for More T-Shaped Professionals

Robbert Bosscher

I548367

University College Maastricht

Academic Year: 11/12

CAP3000: Capstone

Advisor: Dr. Ir. Peter Bollen

Date: 30-05-2012

Word count: 10193

Keywords: T-shaped, Service Science, SSMED, Goods dominant (G-D) logic to service

dominant (S-D) logic, Cellular organisation, HR, hiring practices, labour market.


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Abstract

The 21st century will see an increased demand for T-shaped professionals. A professional with

a T-shaped profile has deep problem solving skills in his area of expertise, but also has the

technical, communication and ICT knowledge to operate in a complex environment and

cooperate with professionals from other fields to design holistic solutions for complex 21st

century problems. Developments leading to an increased demand for the T-shape analysed

by this paper are the transition from a goods-dominant (G-D) logic to a service-dominant (S-

D) logic, the transition from the matrix organisation structure to the cellular structure, and

our world’s increasing rate of change. The paper concludes that the T-shape is not ideal for

every situation, but that its importance is increasing.


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Introduction 5

1. Method 7

2. Terminology 8

1.1. Introduction 8

1.1.1. I-shaped 8

1.1.2. H-shaped 10

1.1.3. Dash-shaped 10

1.1.4. T-shaped 11

1.1.5. Innovation 12

1.1.6. KAI scores 13

1.1.7. Service Science, Management, Engineering and Design (SSMED) 13

3. Changes in the Labour Market 15

3.1. Goods-Dominant (G-D) logic to Service-Dominant (S-D) logic 15

3.1.1. Implications for Professional Profiles 16

3.2. Changing Organisational Structures 17

3.2.1. The Network Organisation 18

3.2.2. The Cellular Organisation 18


3.3. Increasing Rate of Change 20


4. Changes per Discipline 22

4.1. IT 22

4.2. Management 23

4.3. Engineering 23

4.4. Medicine 24

4.5. Transport 25

4.6. Conclusion 26

5. Current Hiring Practices 27


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5.1. Current Hiring practices 27

5.2. Conclusion 28

6. Discussion 29

6.1. How valid and realistic is the call for more T-shaped professionals? 29

7. Difficulties and Opportunities 30

7.1. Government 30

7.2. Employers 30

7.3. Higher Education 30

7.3. Students 31

8. Conclusion 32

Reference: 34


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During the past century and up to the present our education system has been specializing

in delivering professionals with an in depth knowledge of their field. This deep knowledge

of their discipline has led to the term I-shaped professional. What the 21st century labour

market seems to be asking for are professionals who still have this knowledge, but also

have the communication and basic technical capabilities to cooperate well with

professionals in other parts of the system. These professionals can be said to be T-shaped:

with the vertical beam being in depth knowledge of their respective field, and the

horizontal beam the broader knowledge that helps the professional communicate with

other fields (Yahya, Mukhtar, Nielsen & Zakaria, 2011).

This paper identifies three developments presumably creating this higher demand

for the T-shape and examines the validity of the call for more T-shaped professionals.

This examination will attempt to both answer whether more T-shapes are needed, and

whether this relatively expensive professional profile can withstand a cost/benefit

analysis. The three developments are the shift from a goods-dominant (G-D) logic to a

service-dominant (S-D) logic, changes in organisational structures, and our world’s

increasing rate of change. While these developments all seem to be supporting the call for

an increased number of T-shaped professionals there are some potential problems that

might prevent this demand from being met. Potential problems for the rise of the T-

shape’s importance are the cost of education, unwillingness or inability of professionals to

become T-shaped, and the current silo based hiring practices (Bullen, Abraham,

Gallagher, Simon & Zwieg, 2009) (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). This paper will therefore not

only examine the historical and current developments and recommendations regarding

organization by academia; it will also examine developments in hiring practices to see

whether companies walk the talk regarding their valuation of T-shaped professionals.

In Section 1 there will be a short description of the methodology used. In section

2 the terminology of the key terms used will be explained. Terms elaborated on are the I-

, Dash-, H- and T-shaped professional; innovation, the Adaptive Innovator, the Kirton

Adaptor-Innovator Inventory (KAI); and Service Science, Management, Engineering

and Design (SSMED). In section 3 the developments supporting the paper’s hypothesis

will be examined. The developments examined are the shift from a goods-dominant (G-

D) logic to a service-dominant (S-D) logic, changes in organisational structures, and the

increasing rate of change. In section 4 the value of the T-shaped professional for several

disciplines will be examined. Examining current hiring practices, section 5 will then test

how this shape is valued in practice. In section 6 this knowledge is then used to discuss


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the validity of the call for more T-shaped professionals. This paper argues that the

potential benefits outweigh the costs, and that therefore there is a good case to be made

for the value of T-shaped professionals. Section 7 discusses the difficulties and

opportunities of training T-shaped from the perspectives of the government, employers,

higher education and students. While the paper argues for the value of the T-shape, it

does not argue that it is the only good shape. Every professional profile has its pros and

cons and the T-shape is not the right shape for every person or organisation. The T-

shape is not the holy grail of professional profiles. However, there is an increased need for

these professionals and we cannot afford failure in educating enough of these

professionals.


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1. Method

The findings of this paper are based on a review of relevant literature mainly gathered

from journal articles and books. This literature-based approach has been employed

because of the wide scope of the paper and the time constraints of the project. Because of

these it has been decided that an approach employing interviews and questionnaires

would both be unrealistic and of little use. The reason for it being unrealistic is a

combination of the large amount of interviews needed and the available time. The reason

for the irrelevance of interviews is the broad scope of the paper and the impossibility of

generalising local findings to a global scale. After a careful literature review three main

developments have been identified as relevant the question whether or not the T-shape

will increase in demand or not. These developments are the change from a goods-

dominant (G-D) logic to a service-dominant (S-D) logic, changes in organisational

structures and our world’s increasing rate of change. Since there might be differences

between different disciplines the disciplines on which literature was available are then

more closely examined to see whether the argument holds for all of them. To finalise the

examination current hiring practices are examined to see whether theory and practice

are in one line.


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2. Terminology

2.1. Introduction

When discussing the characteristics of professional profiles one way of distinguishing

between different profiles is referring to their ‘shape.’ The shapes used to describe the

various professional profiles are the: I, H, Dash and T. While this paper focuses on

examining the demand for the T-shape in the 21st century it is still important to elaborate

on the other shapes. Only by stating the pros and cons of all shapes can an educated

decision be made about the 21st century labour market’s demand for the T-shape.

Referring to the shapes of the professionals’ skill sets is not the only method for describing

their professional profiles. A term often used to describe a type of professional with a T-

shaped profile is the term ‘adaptive innovator.’ Adaptive innovators are described as:

“People who are entrepreneurial and capable of systems thinking in many project roles they may fill during

their professional life. In contrast to the specialised problem solvers of the 20th century, who are sometimes

called ‘I-shaped’ professionals for their knowledge depth, Adaptive Innovators of the 21st century are still

grounded in their home disciplines but have strong communication skills across areas of business,

technology and social sciences. Hence, they are sometimes called T-shaped professionals” (IfM & IBM,

2008). Because of the high level of similarity between the T-shaped professional and

adaptive-innovator this term will not be further elaborated on. The Kirton adaptor-

innovator (KAI) score is a useful addition to the previous terms because of its ability to

describe professionals’ tendency to adapt or innovate, regardless of their shape (Kirton,

1976). After elaborating on these terms the emerging field of Service Science,

Management, Engineering and Design (SSMED) is examined. This emerging field is a

major driving force behind the call for the importance of the T-shape and can therefore

not be ignored.

2.1.1. I-shaped

The I-shaped professional is the professional ideal of the 20th century; in other terms

often referred to as an expert or specialist. These professionals have deep knowledge and

a high level of problem solving skills in their respective field (Spohrer, Golinelli, Piciocchi

& Bassano, 2010). Currently, universities are mainly geared towards educating this type

of professional. Reasons for this are cost-effectiveness, the demand from the labour

market and a culture biased to valuing experts over generalists (Bullen, Abraham,

Gallangher, Simon & Zwieg, 2009; Spohrer, Golinelli, Piciocchi & Bassano, 2010). The


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cost-effectiveness comes from the fact that these professionals only have to be trained in

one field. From this it follows that they can develop a relatively high level of relevant skill

in a relatively short period of time. Next to this, these professionals can be trained by

using standard curriculums taught at the faculties of their focus. In the case of broader

educated professionals there is a need for coordination between different faculties. This

does not only give rise to potential logistical problems, but also makes the process of

education more expensive due to the additional costs coming from the increased need for

coordination, administration and academic advising (Rugarcia Felder, Woods & Stice,

2000). Another argument for the preference of the I-shape is that students can only learn

so much in a certain amount of time. Because of this constraint it is argued that priority

should be set on developing the specialist skills relevant to the students’ respective fields

(Chan, Chan, Scott & Chan, 2002). The claim that the labour market is still biased

towards the I-shape is supported by the white paper on the 2007 SSMED symposium at

Cambridge University (IfM & IBM, 2008) and by Bullen, Abraham, Simon and Zwieg

(2009). In their paper they conclude that while many IT companies claim they value the

T-shape, they still mainly employ I-shaped graduates for entry-level positions. It has been

suggested that one reason for this might be that when hiring I-shaped graduates you

know what you get. Another might be that many HR employees have enjoyed I-shaped

education as well. This might make them prone to hire people with professional profiles

similar to their own (Smith & McKeen, 2010). In spite of these clear advantages there are

those who argue that the I-shape can also be a disadvantage. Gabriel-Petit (2009) for

instance points out that in the case of a changing labour market it can be very difficult

and costly to re-skill the I-shaped professional.

A SWOT analysis (Pierce & Giles, 1989) of the I-shaped professional shows that

there currently still is a strong case for I-shaped education. This profile is cost- and time-

effective, still in high demand in the labour market and it is clear to the students and their

future employers what the student has been trained at. The weaknesses of the I-shape

mainly show in developments that will be discussed in the next section. An example of

the implications of these developments is the increased chance of an I-shaped

professionals field ceasing to exist. In this case it will potentially be very difficult and

costly to re-skill this professional. Next to this, the developments regarding organisational

structures show that while deep problem solving skills are still relevant, the 21st century

might ask more than that. Because of the tunnel vision of the I-shaped profile, I-shaped

professionals might miss out on opportunities that could have been exploited with a


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broader skill set.

2.1.2. H-shaped

The H-shaped professional shares many characteristics with the I-shaped professional.

The difference is that the H-shaped professional is an expert not only in one, but in two

fields (Spohrer, Golinelli, Piciocchi & Bassano, 2010). Possible combinations are trade

law and business administration, and sustainability science and public policy. This H-

shape gives the professional a perspective that helps to connect two fields and make

decisions understanding the implications for both fields. Educating H-shaped

professionals is extremely expensive due to the need for two majors. A misconception

regarding the H-shape seems to be the idea that the beam connecting the two vertical

beams gives the H-shaped professional as broad a field of reference as the horizontal

beam of the T-shape. The correct way of viewing the horizontal beam of the H is as a

beam showing that the professional can connect TWO fields. While this already increases

the H-shaped professional’s possibilities in comparison to his I-shaped colleague, this still

leaves the H-shaped professional with a less broad field of reference than the T-shapes.

Conducting a SWOT analysis of the H-shape it becomes clear that the

understanding of more than one field gives the H-shaped professional an edge over the I-

shapes. In the case of an opportunity or threat in either field the professional can react in

a way beneficial to both field. The main weakness of the H-shape is the high cost of

education. Next to this it can also be argued that while expert knowledge of two fields is a

plus, it is still too limited for some of the complex multidisciplinary problems of the 21st

century (Hall, 1996; Spohrer, Golinelli, Piciocchi & Bassano, 2010).

2.1.3. Dash-shaped

The Dash-shaped professional is the exact opposite of the I-shaped professional. Whereas

the I-shape is an expert, the Dash-shaped professional is a generalist (Spohrer, Golinelli,

Piciocchi & Bassano, 2010). An example of a Dash-shaped graduate would be a Liberal

Arts graduate without a well-defined academic focus. Educating Dash-shaped

professionals is similar to educating I-shaped ones regarding cost- and time-effectiveness.

An advantage of this Dash-shape is that it is ideal for bridge building between different

fields (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). Many traditional organisations use this approach to

connect I-shapes from different fields by employing Dash-shapes for coordination (Miles,

Snow, Mathews, Miles & Coleman, 1997). An organisation with this structure might be


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cost effective in a constant world. However, in a rapidly changing world it is likely to be

slow to react to threats and opportunities (Allred, Snow & Miles, 1996; Hall, 1996).

Because of this, some organisations are transforming their structure into a cellular one

(Section 3.2.2.). In contrast to the traditional structure, the cellular structure is one where

employing a high ratio of T-shapes might be more cost effective than hiring a mix of I-

and Dash-shapes.

A SWOT analysis of the Dash-shaped professional shows that in a traditional

organisation operating in a relatively constant world the cost- and time-effectiveness of

their education is their main strength. In this type of world and organisation they are

cost-effective bridge builders between the various specialised professionals and

departments of the company. However, with a world that is changing at an increasing

rate this argument might not hold much longer. The more independent professionals

become, the lower the demand for the Dash-shape. The Dash-shaped professional is a

jack-of-all-trades, but a master of none. In a world evolving towards valuing independent

problem solving this is likely to be a less and less demanded profile.

2.1.4. T-shaped

The T-shape was first mentioned in a 1991 newspaper article by David Guest (1991). In

“The hunt for the Renaissance Man of computing,” Guest describes the T-shaped

professional as a modern variation of the Renaissance Man: “equally comfortable with

information systems, modern management techniques and the 12-tone scale” (1991). Donofrio,

Spohrer and Zadeh describe T-shaped professionals as professionals having “problem-

solving (depth) and complex-communication (breadth) skills” (2010). They contrast the T-shape

with the ‘traditional’, highly specialised I-shapes. A major advantage of the T-shape is the

T-shape’s ability to not only solve complex problems in his own field, but also see the

implications of his work for other fields; making the process of holistic problem solving

easier. Next to knowing the implications of his actions for other fields, the T-shaped

professional is well equipped to know where to ask for help when the problem needs a

multidisciplinary solution. Because of this importance of communication, a decent level

of ICT skills is essential for becoming T-shaped (Hall, 1996). This makes the T-shaped

professional ideal for companies in which employees have much autonomy. With

organisational structures seeming to evolve towards this, the case for the T-shape seems

strong (Hall, 1996; Miles, Snow, Mathews, Miles & Coleman, 1997).

In a SWOT analysis the T-shaped professional scores his points with his ability to


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work independently, but also cooperate with professionals from other fields. In a world

that is in need of holistic solutions and quick reactions to opportunities and threats these

are important skills. The main weakness is the relatively high cost of the T-shape’s

education. While being less expensive than the H-shape, the T-shape’s education is

relatively more expensive than those of the I- and Dash-shapes. However, with the

changes currently taking place in organisational structures, the T-shape might become

increasingly attractive and even more cost effective, especially compared to the Dash-

shape.

Figure 1. The T-shape.

2.1.5. Innovation

On a firm-level, Rogers defines innovation as: “the process of introducing new ideas to the firm

which result in increased firm performance” (1998). While there are more possible definitions of

innovation, for the purpose of this paper this definition suffices. The importance of

defining innovation lies in the different types of innovation brought forward by the I- and

T-shapes. Buxton argues that: “innovation asks for I-shaped people” (2009). Regarding a

certain type of innovation, Buxton is correct. Regarding very specialised technical

innovations, only comprising one field of expertise, the I-shape will have an edge over

other professionals. However, the 21st century is increasingly asking for holistic solutions

to multidisciplinary problems (Miles, Snow, Mathews, Miles & Coleman, 1997). This is

the type of innovation where the T-shape has an edge over the I-shape, and therefore it is

argued that that T-shape will increase in importance (Hall, 1996). It is not argued that


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this type of innovation was not relevant in the 20th century, or that specialised innovation

will be obsolete in the 21st century; instead it is argued that both will still coexist, but that

holistic and multidisciplinary innovation will increase in importance.

2.1.6. KAI scores

Professional characteristics are not just described by referring to the ‘shape’ of the

professional’s profile. Another method is the Kirton Adaptor-Innovator (KAI) score

(Kirton, 1976). KAI scores are determined by asking people how difficult it is to present

themselves consistently over a long period of time as someone who has each of the 32

characteristics chosen by Kirton. KAI scores range from 32 to 160 and have a mean of

96. The higher the score, the more the person is an innovator. By themselves Kai scores

do not represent a value judgement because both adaptors and innovators have traits

valuable to business (King & Masters, 2011). In a relatively stable environment the

adaptor provides for stability, while in the worst case the innovator might exhibit

disruptive behaviour. However, in a less stable environment the innovators’ traits might

be necessary to adapt to the new environment in which the business finds itself. In such a

changing environment the adaptor will be slow to respond, leading to failure in reactions

to threats and opportunities. In relationship to the shapes that are the focus of this paper

it is not possible to give positions the different shapes have on the KAI scale; the reason

for this being that both specialists and generalists can either be adaptors or innovators.

What can be said is that in a complex, rapidly changing world, innovators with a T-shape

might be best able to translate their drive to innovate to holistic and multidisciplinary

solutions.

2.1.7. Service Science, Management, Engineering and Design (SSMED)

The term service science, management, engineering and design (SSMED), in short

service science, has first been coined by IBM in 2004 (IfM & IBM, 2008). It is a

specialisation of general systems theory; the interdisciplinary study of systems with the

goal of elucidating principles that can be used to explain all levels of all types of systems

in all fields of research (Weinberg, 2001; Spohrer, Golinelli, Piciocchi & Bassano, 2010).

However, unlike general systems theory it does not attempt to elucidate the mechanisms

that underlie all systems. The systems service science focuses on are those involving

human societal systems. A main reason why services science is emerging as a field is the

fact that since 2007 on a global scale service jobs outnumber any other type of jobs. In


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this year, the percentage of service jobs worldwide was 42%, while jobs in agriculture and

manufacturing accounted for respectively 36.1 and 21.9% (IfM & IBM, 2008). Another

important argument for the emergence of service science is the decreasing attractiveness

of competing purely on the basis of economies of scale (Vargo & Lush, 2008).

In the study of human societal systems services science recognises three stages in

the evolution of value co-creating mechanisms and service system entities (Spohrer &

Maglio, 2009). Stage 1 is that of early human culture in which the dominant type of

entity is the family of the clan. Stage 2 describes the situation after the advent of written

laws and money with the dominant entity being the nation and the focus being on

supporting the legal and monetary structure. Stage 3 describes the age of globalisation in

which businesses are the dominant entity and the focus is on organising value co-creation

(Spohrer & Maglio, 2009).

In 2007 the US government recognised the value of service science by including it

in the America COMPETES Act (2007). Section 1106 (d) states that: “Service Science means

curricula, training, and research programs that are designed to teach individuals to apply scientific,

engineering, and management disciplines that integrate elements of computer science, operations research,

industrial engineering, business strategy, management sciences, and social and legal sciences, in order to

encourage innovation in how organizations create value for customers and shareholders that could not be

achieved through such disciplines working in isolation” (2007).

For this paper the importance of the emergence of service science lies both in the

demand it creates for T-shaped professionals and in the opportunities it creates for

educating them. In the last sentence of the section quoted from the COMPETES Act the

act refers to the cooperation between different disciplines. T-shaped professionals are

ideal for facilitating this cooperation. The opportunities service science brings are

possibilities for additional government and private funding of education, and the

recognition of the value of the T-shape (IfM & IBM, 2008). This might reduce the

current hiring bias towards I-shaped graduates and thereby increase the opportunities for

T-shaped graduates. In turn, this might have a positive effect on the attractiveness of T-

shaped education, and might reduce the problem of higher costs by showing that the

students receive value for money. An important part of service science and a main driver

for the demand for T-shaped professionals is the change from a goods-dominant (G-D)

logic to a service-dominant (S-D) logic. This, together with changes in organisational

structures and the increasing rate of change will be discussed in the next section.


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3. Changes in the Labour Market

3.1. Goods-Dominant (G-D) logic to Service-Dominant (S-D) logic

The ‘traditional’ view on goods and services is a horizontal one, emphasising the

difference between goods and services (Vargo & Lush, 2008). This is the goods dominant

logic, in which the emphasis is on goods and in which services are an extra. It would be

incorrect to say that when applying this perspective there is no attention for service

quality. However, because the focus is on goods, the quality of the goods is likely to

receive more attention and resources than the quality of the services. Vargo and Lush

(2008) argue that currently we are in a transition from this goods-dominant (G-D) logic to

a service-dominant (S-D) logic. Contrary to the horizontal relationship of the G-D logic,

in S-D logic goods and services have a vertical relationship where the goods are part of

the bigger holistic view on services. When buying a lawnmower for instance, in S-D logic

you do not buy a lawnmower and expect good service with it. Instead, you expect good

service regarding your demand: the possibility to mow your lawn. In this view, the

lawnmower is merely a part of the service providing you're the possibility to do so.

While service-dominant thinking is often seen as a result and driver of the

emerging field of services science, this mode of thinking is not entirely new. Already in

1848 Frederic Bastiat argued that: “The great economic law is this: services are exchanged for

services… It is trivial, very commonplace; it is, nonetheless, the beginning, the middle, and the end of

economic science” (Vargo & Lush, 2008). While S-D logic is gaining increasing support there

is criticism to this perspective as well. A main criticism is that S-D logic creates a false

dichotomy (Brody, Pels & Saren, 2006). Vargo and Lush (2008) argue that this

dichotomy was first created by G-D logic. In their view, it is actually S-D logic that

resolves the dichotomy by transcending notions of goods and service by a higher-order

concept of service.

A good example of early S-D thinking is provided by Brown (2008) in the person

of Thomas Edison and his invention of the light bulb. Brown argues that by itself the

product was not much more than an interesting novelty. It only became so successful

because Edison managed to envision the bigger picture and the need for a power grid. It

was not just the invention of the light bulb, but also Edison’s holistic vision of the market

place that led to the success of the light bulb.


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Figure 2: Differences between G-D and S-D logic. (Bjurklo, Edvardsson & Gebauer,

2009).

3.1.1. Implications for Professional Profiles

Edison can be regarded a T-shaped professional. He had deep problem solving skills in

his field, but also managed to see the bigger picture that helped make his products so

successful. It was this ability to envision a holistic view of the marketplace that made his

light bulb so successful (Brown, 2008). If Vargo and Lush (2008) are correct and S-D

thinking will continue to gain ground on G-D thinking, then this ability to see the bigger

picture is becoming increasingly important. Examining the professional profiles

introduced in section 2, the T-shape seems most appropriate for this. While the I-shaped

professional could have invented the light bulb, it would bee unlikely for this professional

to have envisioned a need for a power grid. The same counts for the H-shaped

professional regarding issues transcending his fields of expertise. The Dash-shaped

professional might have been able to envision the need of a power grid after hearing of

Edison’s invention of the light bulb, but could have not invented the light bulb by

himself.

In traditional companies where Dash-shaped professionals connect I-shaped

professionals it seems there might not be a need for T-shaped professionals. Dash- and I-

shaped professionals are less expensive to train and might therefore be the more

attractive option. This means that the G-D logic to S-D logic transition alone does not

make a very strong case for the call for more T-shaped professionals. However, when

combined with current changes in organisational structures and an increasing rate of

change this picture changes. These developments will therefore now be discussed starting

with changes in organisational structures.


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3.2. Changing Organisational Structures

According to Allred, Snow and Miles (1996) there are three key ideas about

organisational structure. The first is that organisational structure dictates core

managerial competencies; the second that different organisation structures require a

different mix of managerial competencies. Finally, the third states that organisational

structure dictates how careers are managed. Especially point one and two are

important for the purpose of this paper. In the previous section it has been argued

that currently the role of the T-shaped professional might still be filled by a

combination of I- and Dash-shaped professionals. However, organisational structures

are changing, and according to Schein (1996) and Hall (1996) this should have an

effect on the competencies required. While it might be interesting to examine the full

history of the evolution of organisational structures since the latter half of the

nineteenth century, for this paper it suffices to start this examination in the latter half

of the twentieth century. To still place these developments in their larger historical

perspective, figure 3 shows the developments in organisational structures since 1850.

Figure 3: Organisational structures since 1850 (Miles, Snow, Mathews, Miles &

Coleman, 1997)


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3.2.1. The Network Organisation

In the 1970’s it became evident that many large organisations were slow to respond to

threats and opportunities. It was in the 1980’s that companies such as Nike, Motorola

and Novell developed the network organisation (Hatch & Cunliffe, 2006). This was

achieved by downsizing, delayering and outsourcing; all with the purpose of becoming

more responsive. In a network organisation the network links independent firms who all

contribute their specific expertise to the organisation at large. Because of this network

structure, it became possible to let market forces work within the organisation and

thereby increase efficiency. Next to this, this structure allowed companies to become

more responsive and gave them a chance to focus on the things they were really good at.

At Nike for instance, both manufacturing and distribution are outsourced. Next to the

efficiency gain, an important advantage of the network structure is that relatively small

companies can have a major impact by teaming up with bigger players such as Nike or

IBM (Grugulis,Vincent, & Hebson, 2003; Zeleny, 2007).

3.2.2. The Cellular Organisation

According to Allred, Snow and Miles (1996) the cellular structure is the organisational

structure of the 21st century. While the network organisation already lowered the level

of bureaucracy present in previous structures, the cellular structure is aiming to lower

it even further. The idea of the cellular organisation structure is based on the

cooperation of the cells of a living organism. Each of these cells possesses the

fundamental functions of life and can act on its own. However, by cooperating with

other cells it can perform actions it would not manage to perform on its own. In this

context, the company guidelines can be seen as the DNA of the organisation. Allred,

Snow and Miles (1996), Hall (1996) and Hatch and Cunliffe (2006) realise that this

organisational structure might not be the right structure for every company.

Nevertheless, they argue that it will take a prominent position in the organisational

landscape of the 21st century.

An example of a cellular company is the Australian computer service

company Technical Computer Graphics (TCG). TCG is Australia’s largest privately

owned computer service business. However, TCG is not a single company in the

traditional sense. Its total of two hundred employees is divided over thirteen

independent companies that cooperate on a project basis. TCG projects make use of


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a process called triangulation. In this process every project is executed by one TCG

firm, an outside firm, and a major customer. The TCG firm and the outside firm

provide technical knowhow, and the customer provides cash and receives contractual

rights and input in the development process in return. While only one TCG firm

actively participates in any one project, it is possible to ask for the help of other TCG

firms in the case of missing expertise; by doing this both TCG firms learn from

experience, just like the cells in a living organism (Mathews, 1993; Coleman, 1999).

Figure 4: Triangulation at TCG. (Miles et al, 1997)


The changes in organisational structures show a trend towards increased autonomy and a

more project based approach to organisation. One of the implications of this is that the

traditional rigid structure is increasingly disappearing and that job descriptions are

becoming increasingly vague. Instead of asking for specialists with only knowledge of

their specific field, structures such as the cellular structure ask for team players who are

still deep problem solvers in their respective fields, but who also have a basic

understanding of the fields of the people they cooperate with, and the communication


20

skills to reach these professionals and cooperate with them in a successful way (Gabriel-

Petit, 2009; Hall, 1996). By adding this development tot the G-D logic to S-D logic shift,

the case for an increased percentage of T-shaped professionals gains strength. While not

every company will shift to a cellular structure, the cellular structure’s increased

importance makes a strong case for the increased importance of the T-shape. Next to this

change in organisational structures there are also broader changes in the labour market.

One of these is the increasing rate of change. This increased change and the resulting

insecurity ask for professionals who are comfortable with dealing with changing job

descriptions and the absence of a clear career path (Schein, 1996; Hall, 1996). This

development leads to situations similar to those found in a cellular organisation, with

work being conducted on a project basis, and with the absence of a clear career path.

Because of this similarity and its importance to the call for the increased importance of

the T-shape, the increasing rate of change will now be discussed.

3.3. Increasing Rate of Change


Whether it is the driving- or facilitating force, there is a strong case to be made for

developments in the computer industry being of a major influence on our world’s rate of

change (Coleman, 1999). The possibilities given to us by modern technology have made

possible a level of connectivity and globalisation never before possible, and the

computing power making this possible is increasing at an exponential rate. This

exponential rate was already predicted 1965 by Gordon Moore and is now widely known

as Moore’s law (Lundstrom, 2003). Moore predicted that the number of transistors would

double every year. While this does not automatically lead to innovation, this exponential

growth is what makes possible the current rapid developments and innovation in

computer technology. Because of the new possibilities provided by this increasing

computing power we are now able to do many things previously impossible, fuelling the

rate of change. According to Spohrer, Golinelli, Piciocchi and Bassano, (2010) and Hall

(1996) the effect this has on our labour market is that soon the ‘traditional’ career will be

history. The end of the traditional career is the effect of the increased rate of change and

gives opportunities to a specific type of professional. As Hall puts it: “The career of the 21st

century will be protean, a career that is driven by the person, not the organisation, and that will be

reinvented by the person from time to time, as the person and environment change” (1996).


21

Research by psychologist Robert Kegan shows that less than half of the adults in

the sample of one of his experiments felt comfortable operating independently in a

complex environment (Kegan, 1994). While this might seem like a criticism to the

protean career, it can also be looked at from a different perspective. While approximately

one half of Kegan’s sample felt uncomfortable operating independently in a complex

environment there were still many others who did. It might therefore mean that instead

of being a criticism to the protean career, Kegan’s research indicates that in the future a

different type of person is likely to be successful. This idea is supported by examining the

driving forces behind the developments that are creating a need for the protean career.

Since these developments are driven by changes in the world and the labour market as a

whole those fearing independence will not stop them. Hall (1996) makes a convincing

argument for the attractiveness of the protean career to certain individuals. These

individuals are those who are comfortable operating autonomously without a clear career

path and job description, largely working on a project basis. This description of very

similar to the type of professional asked for in the cellular organisation structure and

therefore similar to that of the T-shaped professional.

The protean career asks for independent professionals who have strong problem

solving skills in their field, but also strong communication and ICT skills. Next to this, it

also asks for people who can be successful in different types of jobs and are comfortable

with job changes. Examining the professional shapes of section 2 the T-shape again

stands out as the ideal professional shape. Kegan’s research does not provide an

argument against this. Indeed, many people would feel uncomfortable in this type of

career. However, that does not mean that this change will not happen. It means that for

some the opportunities will decrease and that for others they will increase. The type of

professional whose opportunities are likely to increase is the T-shaped professional.


22

4. Changes per Discipline

While there seem to be trends indicating that the T-shape is becoming increasingly

attractive, this does not mean that this weights equally for different disciplines. Therefore,

in this section the advantages of the T-shape will be examined for the following

disciplines: IT, management, engineering, medicine and transport.

4.1. IT

It is in the IT sector that the most well known developments in service science and the call for

more T-shaped professionals have taken place. A major contributor to this development is

IBM. It was IBM that in 2004 coined the term service science, management, engineering and

design (SSMED – service science), and in the process of developing this field IBM has also

been advocating the importance of the T-shape (IfM & IBM, 2008; IBM, 2005). For the IT

sector the main driver for the increased importance of the T-shape seems to be the necessity

to bridge the communication gap between IT and business present in many organisations

(Bullen, Abraham, Gallagher, Simon & Zwieg, 2009; Smith & McKeen, 2010). This is

something that is almost impossible with only I-shaped professionals because most of these

professionals are not able to see the business implications of their work, and therefore are not

well equipped to communicate in a way that business understands (Smith & McKeen, 2010).

They might be really good at the technical part of their job, but not in communicating the

advantages of improvements in IT to their companies. Next to this, they might not fully

understand the needs of their companies, and therefore be unable to provide the best fitting

solutions. Because of this miscommunication between IT professionals and the rest of the

company it is not possible to reach IT’s full potential. In their paper “how to talk so business will

listen… and listen so business will talk,” Smith and McKeen (2010) argue that the T-shaped ICT

professional is the answer to this.

The exact percentage of T-shaped professionals that is needed will depend on the

type and size of the organisation. Not every IT professional needs the T-shape. However, for

those who have contact with the rest of the organisation it is definitely an edge. For larger

organisations a solution could be the employment of boundary spanners. Gittell, Seidner and

Wimbush describe boundary spanners as: “staff members whose primary task is to integrate the work of

other people around a project, process, or customer” (2010). Taking this approach would lower the

demand for T-shapes since only the boundary spanner contacts other departments. However,

even in this case the T-shape is still an advantage because of the better understanding of the

needs and limitations of other departments (Emmett, 2010).


23

Figure 4: Boundary Spanners. Based on: (Gittell, Seidner & Wimbush, 2010).

4.2. Management

Management is another discipline in which the T-shape is increasingly appreciated.

While in traditional organisations either an I- or a Dash-shape was considered the ideal

profile of the manager, the developments towards the network and cellular structure

make the T-shape increasingly important (Allred, Snow & Miles, 1996). The

organisational structures are becoming increasingly difficult to control and individual

divisions are becoming increasingly autonomous. This requires not only knowledge of the

field of the manager’s own department, but also the communication and ICT skills and

technical knowhow of other fields to contact the relevant departments and professionals

in the case of missing expertise in the manager’s own department. Together with the

increasing complexity of the business environment in our globalising world leads Emmett

(2008) to conclude that we need T-shaped managers at all levels in all value chain

businesses.

4.3. Engineering

Engineering is another discipline that is becoming increasingly complex and


24

multidisciplinary. Not only the technical aspect of the product has to be good, but also

aesthetics, sustainability and other factors are becoming increasingly important. Because

of this, increased communication and understanding of other disciplines is becoming

increasingly important (Rugarcia, Felder, Woods & Stice, 2000; Wang & Sheu, 2009).

According to Rugarcia, Felder, Woods and Stice: “Corporations and employers have frequently

and publicly complained about the lack of professional awareness and low levels of communication and

teamwork skills in engineering graduates” (2000). If this is the case, a T-shaped engineering

graduate is likely to have an edge over his I-shaped counterparts (Smith & McKeen,

2010). This need for improved communication and teamwork skills have been recognised

by the U.S. Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) in its

Engineering Criteria 2000. This initiative aims to ensure that: “All U.S. engineering

departments will have to demonstrate that besides having a firm grasp of science, mathematics and

engineering fundamentals, their graduates possess communication, multidisciplinary teamwork, and

lifelong learning skills and awareness of social and ethical considerations associated with the engineering

profession” (Felder, 1998). In line with the Engineering Criteria 2000 Chan, Chan, Scott

and Chan argue for curricula that educate aspiring construction professionals in a

multidisciplinary and an integrative-professional way (2002). They argue that this

approach should both be used in undergraduate education and in the continuing

professional education of practitioners.

4.4. Medicine

Traditionally the specialist (I-shape) and the general practitioner (Dash-shape) seem to

have been the mainly appreciated professionals in the medical profession. However, in a

world with an increasing rate of change in research and education, the appeal of the T-

shape seems to be increasing. According to Donofrio, Spohrer and Zadeh (2010) those

graduates who have combined and developed research, professional and entrepreneurial

skills by working alongside experienced researchers and industry representatives are

already some of the most sought after graduates. One of the reasons for this is the high

amount of teaching done by clinicians and the resulting importance of communication

skills. In the U.S. clinicians did ¾ of medical teaching in 2006 (Joyce, Piterman &

Wesselingh, 2009). Other important driving factors are the increased importance of

knowledge of market forces, technology and legal issues. Legal issues already seem

important enough for medical schools to offer electives in legal issues as an answer to the

increased amount of lawsuits medical professionals are confronted with nowadays


25

(DeCosta & DeCosta, 2006). An argument against the T-shape is provided by Buxton

(2009). Buxton argues that innovation asks for I-shaped professionals. This is indeed true

for specialist innovation. However, innovation of the kind that spans across disciplines

will prefer the T-shape for its power to connect these disciplines and envision holistic

solutions (Sussmann, 1999). Because it is this type of innovation that is becoming

increasingly important, the argument for the increased importance of the T-shape still

holds. Another point against the increased importance of the T-shape is the argument

that the I-shape in cooperation with the Dash-shape is to be preferred over the T-shape

because this approach is more cost-effective (IfM & IBM, 2008). However, this argument

might soon be outdated. The reasons for this are that at the time this organisational

structure emerged the rate of change was still relatively low, and that technology was

relatively static over a complete human life span (Donofrio, Spohrer & Zadeh, 2010). In a

world with more rapid change, chances increase for specialists to lose their jobs because

of a changing labour market, or for technology to change structure several times during a

lifetime. Because T-shapes already have some degree of interactional expertise with other

areas re-skilling them is likely to be less costly than re-skilling I-shapes. Therefore, in the

long run, T-shapes might even be the more cost effective option (Donofrio, Spohrer &

Zadeh, 2010).

4.5. Transport

In his 1999 paper, Sussman advocates the importance of professionals with a broad

understanding of technology, systems and institutions in the transportation domain (the

horizontal beam of the T), and in-depth knowledge in one specialty (the vertical beam of

the T). Sussman advocates this because these professionals are best equipped for solving

complicated transportation problems by combining their expert knowledge with their

ability to see the bigger picture, and because of their appreciation of the strengths of

other professionals. In a 1995 paper he states: “An understanding of the world of transportation

systems, together with analysis tools, a sound grasp of the institutional framework and knowledge of

technology and its potential, are the sine qua non of the ‘new transportation professional’” (Sussman,

1995). According to Sussman and Emmett reasons for this increased importance of the

T-shape for transportation are the new global nature of transport, developments in

technology, the increased need to focus on social and environmental externalities and the

changing organisational and institutional relationships among providers and users of

transportation services (Sussman, 1999; Emmett, 2008).


26

4.6. Conclusion

While different disciplines have different specific needs, the general trend seems to be

that the T-shape is gaining appreciation and importance. Whether it is IT, management,

engineering, medicine or transport; all disciplines show a trend of increased importance

of the T-shape. However, while the T-shape might be advocated on paper, the reality of

hiring practices might be different. Therefore, in the next section current hiring practices

will be examined to see whether these disciplines walk their talk.


27

5. Current Hiring Practices

The evidence seems to suggest that there is a need for more T-shaped professionals.

However, other evidence suggests that even companies that claim to be looking for the T-

shape still mainly employ I-shaped graduates for entry-level positions. Is this really the

case? And if yes, what are the reasons for this?

5.1. Current Hiring practices

According to Bullen, Abraham, Gallagher, Simon and Zwieg (2009) many IT companies

in the U.S. that claim to prefer the T-shape still mainly employ I-shaped graduates. In

their paper they observe that both the IT service providers and their clients appreciate

the T-shaped skill set. The clients rank technical skills as most important. However, they

also appreciate ‘softer skills’ such as communication, industry knowledge and functional

process knowledge. These are also the skills that clients identify as often missing.

Providers also seem to seek a blend of technical and soft skills. However, on top of the

mentioned skills they also include project management skills. These include project

planning, budgeting, working with virtual teams and user relationship management.

Because of this, it might be surprising to see that these companies till mainly hire I-

shaped graduates for entry-level positions. In this, there seems to be a difference between

employees hired in high- and low-wage locations. In the low-wage locations it are mainly

the technical skills that are valued. In high-wage locations there seems to be an increasing

trend towards appreciating soft skills as well. This might indicate that while currently

there is still a bias towards I-shaped graduates, this might change in the future.

Examining a potential reason for this bias makes this scenario even more likely. At least

for the IT sector one of the important reasons for the I-shape bias might be that many

HR employees in the IT sector have enjoyed an I-shaped education themselves and

might therefore feel comfortable in evaluating and hiring this type of entry-level

candidate. If this is the main reason for the bias towards the hiring of I-shapes this might

change once the T-shape is becoming more common among employees. Since in mid-

career recruitment the T-shape is already an important factor in evaluation, this

development could potentially take place in the near future (Bullen, Abraham, Gallagher,

Simon & Zwieg, 2009; Smith & McKeen, 2010).

Of course the IT sector cannot be used to generalise to other disciplines.

However, it can be assumed that there is a fair chance that similar hiring biases are in


28

place there as well. Due to the absence of relevant literature it is currently not possible to

determine this. It is therefore important that research is done for other sectors as well if

we wish to understand the mechanics behind the potentially increasing importance of the

T-shape.

Next to this potentially temporary bias another reason for hiring I-shaped

graduates might be that some companies might prefer to develop the horizontal beam of

the T on the job, instead of in university. Since people can learn only so much in their

time in university these companies might value technical knowhow above the softer skills.

Examples of on the job training are the rotational system in which people are rotated

through various functions during their traineeship (Hall, 1996), and the Japanese hiring

system in which upon hiring it is not even clear yet what function the graduate will fulfil

(Segers, 2009). In the Japanese system students do their job-hunting in their junior year

of university and enter the company after graduating a year later. During the year that

follows they receive extensive company training and will try out several functions. Only

after this they will be assigned a specific function.

5.2. Conclusion

While companies might not hire as many T-shaped graduates as they claim they would

like to this does not make a case against the value of the T-shape. This discrepancy might

be due to a bias of current HR employees, or because the company prefers on the job

training. Because of this the question of how and when to train the T-shape becomes

relevant. This is something that might differ per discipline. While in IT empirical data

shows that companies still largely hire I-shaped graduates, evidence from medicine seems

to suggest that the T-shape is already very much sought after (Donofrio, Spohrer &

Zadeh, 2010). The question of when and where to train the horizontal beam of the T is

important because of the allocation of resources. If companies in a certain sector prefer

on the job training to skills acquired in university, it would be a waste for universities to

spend too much time and money on these skills. However, in the case of for instance

medicine there seems to be a case for the development of the horizontal beam during

education. Because of these differences and the importance of resource allocation it is

important that more research is done in this direction. While it is currently not possible to

answer the question of when and where to train the horizontal beam of the T, by now it

seems possible to validate or invalidate the call for more T-shaped professionals. In the

next section the validity of this claim is examined.


29

6. Discussion

6.1. How valid and realistic is the call for more T-shaped professionals?

In the previous sections the following developments pointing towards the increased need

for T-shaped professionals have been examined:

- The transition from a goods-dominant (G-D) logic to a service-dominant (S-D) logic.

- The development from the matrix to the cellular organisational structure.

- The increasing rate of change

All three developments show that in theory there is a strong case to be made for the T-

shaped skill set. However, as seen in section 5, there is evidence to suggest that even

companies that claim to value the T-shape actually still mainly hire I-shaped graduates.

However, this is mainly true for low-wage locations and entry-level positions. Possible

explanations for this bias towards the I-shape are the professional background of the HR

personnel, the potentially different nature of the work in high- and low-wage locations

and a potential preference of companies to train the horizontal beam of the T on the job.

Another criticism to the T-shape is that even if it would be valuable, it is simply too

expensive. According to this argument, both time and money do not permit the training

of such people on a large scale. Currently this indeed seems to be true. In the network

structure it is still possible to connect I-shaped employees by employing several Dash-

shapes. However, looking at developments in the labour market it can be observed that

in the future the relatively higher price that has to be paid for the T-shape might become

worth it. A final criticism seems to be delivered by the research of psychologist Robert

Kegan whose research showed that less than half his subjects were comfortable working

in the environment in which T-shapes would feel comfortable. However, this still leaves

many others who might feel comfortable in this environment. This would mean that

indeed not everyone has the potential to become T-shaped, but that there are still

enough individuals who have this potential. If this is the case, than instead of being an

argument against the feasibility of the call for more T-shapes it indicates that in the future

the professional profile that is likely to make one successful is likely to change.


30

7. Difficulties and Opportunities

7.1. Government

For governments the importance of training T-shaped professionals lies in the

importance of the competitiveness of their countries. In a changing world it is important

for countries to have the right people to tackle both today’s and tomorrow’s problems. It

seems that the U.S. government is already taking steps in this direction with initiatives

such as the COMPETES Act and the Engineering Criteria 2000. Next to regulations

financial stimulation might be a good option as well. Training T-shaped professionals is

more expensive than training I- and Dash-shapes and therefore this stimulation might be

needed to convince students and universities to pursue T-shaped education. However,

governments should be spending this money wisely and therefore the benefits of

developing the T-shape during higher education should be examined for each discipline.

Next to this it should be recognised that the T-shape is not the right shape for everyone,

and that not everyone has to have the T-shape.

7.2. Employers

For employers the most important thing seems to be the need to clearly state what type of

professional is demanded. If as in the Japanese case companies indeed prefer to develop

the T-shape on the job, this can save universities large sums of money. Next to this, it

gives students the opportunity to focus on their in depth knowledge during university, in

the knowledge that they can develop the horizontal beam of the T on the job. If on the

other hand companies would prefer to hire graduates who already developed this beam

during their education this should also be clearly communicated. If this preference is

clearly communicated it might motivate students to develop these skills either by

including it in their studies of by extra curricular activities. Next to this, this message and

the resulting demand from the student side can help convince universities to offer the

right programmes and governments to financially stimulate these.

7.3. Higher Education

In the 20th century universities have developed into institutions specialised in providing

the labour market with I-shaped professionals (Sussman, 1999). While an increase in the

percentage of T-shaped professionals would be valuable, there is no need to stop doing


31

this and instead only focus on the education of T-shapes. However, it would be good to

make it possible to develop the T-shape while studying. A possibility would be the

establishment of minors in service science, or the establishment of multidisciplinary

projects involving both staff and students from different faculties (Yahya, Mukhtar,

Nielsen & Zakaria, 2011). The reasons for the focus of the proposed minor being service

science are that this can be useful for students of every discipline, and that the holistic

approach to problem solving employed by service science is ideal for the development of

the T-shape (IfM & IBM, 2008). Next to this, as shown by regulation such as the

COMPETES Act, service science is already becoming increasingly recognised by

governments. Because of this, it might be easier to attract funds for service science than

funds specifically targeting the training of T-shapes.

7.3. Students

Students teem to be the victims of the unclear messages from the other stakeholders. This

inclarity leaves unclear whether they should spend time and money on developing the T-

shape during their studies or not? It is therefore important for the other parties to start

communicating more clearly in order to enable students to make the right decisions.

However, there are things students can do as well. Even if these is still a preference for I-

shaped graduates for entry-level positions, later in their careers professionals are expected

to have a more T-shaped profile. Next to this, developments such as the transition from a

goods-dominant logic to a service-dominant logic, changing organisational structures and

the increasing rate of change all show a trend towards an increased importance of the T-

shape. If therefore the students can find ways such as extracurricular activities to

complement their I-shaped studies this should provide them with an edge over others

who have not done this. This edge might not show in the students’ first job application,

but is likely to be beneficial in later stages of the students’ careers.


32

8. Conclusion

This paper examined the call for an increase in the percentage of T-shaped professionals

in the future labour market. In this is has analysed three main developments that point

towards a trend of an increasing importance of the T-shape. The first of these is the

transition from a goods-dominant (G-D) logic to a service-dominant (S-D) logic. The

holistic approach to problem solving offered by the latter asks for a better understanding

of the bigger picture than the goods centred approach of the former. Because of this it is

increasingly important to understand and appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of

professionals from other fields than your own, and to have the communication and ICT

skills to reach and understand these people. The T-shaped professional possesses these

skills while at the same time still being a deep problem solver in his own field. The second

development that was examined is the changing of organisational structure. The change

that was focused on was the transition from the network structure to the cellular

structure. While the network structure already asks for a relatively high amount of

autonomy on the part of the employee, the cellular structure is even increasing this

demand. The cellular structure asks for employees and departments to act in a way

similar to the behaviour of the cells of a living organism, connected to the rest of the

company by the company DNA in the form of the company guidelines. In order to

operate in such a company the employees should have the deep problem solving skills

needed to solve complicated problems in their own discipline, but also have an

understanding and appreciation of other relevant fields, and the communication and

ICT skills to cooperate with professionals from these fields. Again the T-shape stands out

as the best fit. The third development is the increased rate of change and the resulting

increased insecurity. If the career of the 21st century is indeed a protean career as argued

by Hall, the professional of the 21st century should feel comfortable operating in such an

environment. In such an environment the professional is expected to be able to operate

in a mainly project based work environment in which his job and job description changes

from time to time, and in which communication with other fields is of crucial

importance. This development also points to the T-shape as the ideal fit.

The criticisms to the importance of the T-shape range from the findings of

psychologist Robert Kegan to the argument that developing the T-shape is too expensive,

to the argument that it is best to develop the T-shape on the job. Neither of these

arguments makes a convincing case against the T-shape as a valuable profile for the 21st


33

century professional. These critiques are mainly operational and argue that for difficulties

in meeting the demand for the number of needed T-shapes. The finding of Kegan’s

research was that less than half the adults in his sample felt comfortable operating

independently in a complex environment. Other than an argument against the

importance of the T-shape, this can be seen as an indication that if the T-shape will

indeed become increasingly important it is another type of people that are likely to

become successful. The argument that the T-shape is too expensive might still hold now,

but will likely change in the near future. Once the importance of the T-shape becomes

obvious to governments, higher education, employers and students; the higher costs

might be regarded as a worthwhile investment. The argument that it is best to develop

the T-shape on the job is also not intrinsically against the value of the T-shape. It is

merely operational and even if true does not make a case against it. The importance of

this argument lies in the effect it has on the ideal allocation of resources. If it would

indeed be the case it would be a waste for governments, higher education and students to

spend their resources on developing the horizontal beam of the T before graduation.

However, that still does not make a case against the value of the T-shape in itself.

The paper has also identified differences between different disciplines regarding

the demand for the T-shape and the potential differences regarding the preferred method

of training. Because of these potential differences it is important for future research to

focus on these differences in order to achieve the best possible allocation of resources. If a

certain sector or country would prefer on the job training then training in university

might be a waste. However, if the sector prefers to hire T-shaped already at an entry-

level this should be an incentive for governments, higher education and students to

already develop the horizontal beam during their education. The most important thing

next to this research seems to be clear communication from companies regarding the

profile they are looking for, and a commitment to this in entry-level hiring. If both

indicate a demand for the T-shape, governments, higher education and students are

likely to respond to this demand. Finally, it is important to note that this paper does not

argue for the education of generalists. Generalists are Dash-shaped professionals who are

jacks-of-all-trades but masters of none. The paper argues for professionals with both a

highly developed vertical beam in the form of deep problem solving skills in one field,

and a highly developed horizontal beam in the form of knowledge and appreciation of

other fields and the communication and ICT skills to be able to interact with these fields

and design holistic solutions to tomorrow’s problems.


34

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