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Teaching Grammar in Context 1
Running Head: Teaching Grammar in Context
Teaching Grammar in Context: Stepping away from Grammar in Isolation
Laura Winkler
Peabody College at Vanderbilt University
Capstone
Fall 2009
Teaching Grammar in Context 2
ABSTRACT
It is often difficult to convince teachers and students that grammar instruction is a necessary
part of the school day. Some who do believe that it is pertinent have a hard time of
incorporating it so that it is authentic and effective. Historically, the need for grammar
instruction has moved all over the spectrum of “necessary and unnecessary”. Researchers and
educators have debated this idea for decades and controversies have followed. Most
controversies are based around the methods of instruction used. Focusing on researched
based ideas, and discovering what it is that drives students to learn can provide teachers with
avenues that support the “necessary” side of the spectrum while paying attention to how
learners learn best. Tossing out line item worksheets and creating reading and writing activities
in the context of what students are learning will eliminate any reservations about grammar
instruction in the classroom. Effective teaching methods can be incorporated into the
curriculum by using the activities that are occurring daily in reading and writer’s workshop. As a
teacher, creating a community that fosters this type of learning will ensure that all students are
confident and ready to learn. Students who are able to work together can constructively
discover why grammar is relevant to their lives as readers and writers. Assessment is a
necessary piece used to drive instruction and prove growth over time to students. Students
need to see that they have corrected errors and improved their grammar usage. This paper
examines key ideas for teachers to keep in mind when designing a classroom and curriculum
integrated with the teaching and learning of grammar.
Teaching Grammar in Context 3
Teaching Grammar in Context: Stepping away from Grammar in Isolation
INTRODUCTION
When people communicate, through written or oral language, they usually do not think
about the grammatical aspect of communication. The purpose of communication is to convey
information. Depending on the situation, the grammar used may not even be considered
Standard English; we all make mistakes. Therefore, the job of correcting the grammar errors
and teaching the rules has been passed on to teachers. With this job, the controversies of how
to teach grammar soon follow, debating traditional and non-traditional methods of instruction.
At the end of the day, everyone agrees that grammar should be taught, but the method that
should be used sparks unrest between educators—the struggle of teaching grammar out of
isolation begins.
To move past the grammar instruction controversies, which have been going on for
decades, teachers need to keep several key aspects about teaching and learning in mind.
Teaching grammar can be difficult; therefore, understanding how learners learn best, along
with their motivation and drive is necessary for a successful classroom community. Members
of the community who constructively accept each other’s strengths and needs are the most
likely to succeed. Providing activities that are authentic and meaningful can also lessen the
burden. Finally, using assessments that are useful to drive instruction will create opportunities
for learners to learn to their fullest potential. Tweaking the methods that do not work can
make a huge difference in the classroom.
Teaching Grammar in Context 4
LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
History of Grammar
Grammar often has a stigma attached to it, and even students can recognize the
negativity. In order to examine successful ways to teach grammar, it is fair to glance at a
snippet of the history of grammar instruction, in order to see the big picture as to why teachers,
administrators, and the community disagree on the how’s and why’s of grammar instruction.
(Tomkins, 2005) Throughout history, ideas and beliefs about how students should learn
grammar best and the methods that should be used have varied, causing controversy.
Grammar instruction can be dated back to B.C. when it was taught only to boys, and it
was considered that those who spoke ‘correct’ grammar were socially more prestigious than
those who did not. (Weaver, 1996) Since that time, several aspects and thoughts about
grammar have changed vastly. A noteworthy event, which took place in 1935, came from an
action taken by the NCTE. They appointed a committee to make recommendations on
grammar instruction, which stated that grammar should be taught in connection with writing,
rather than isolation. They also set out objectives that should be taught at each grade level.
This approach was outside of the comfort zone for educators, when comparing to the formal
grammar instruction that was taking place, and therefore, not well received. At this time,
further research that disapproved formal grammar instruction was also being conducted, which
added support to the NCTE; however, the recommendations made by NCTE were never
implemented. (Kolln & Hancock, 2005) Various significant breakthroughs have happened
throughout more recent history, but it is important to mention the action in 1935 because the
Teaching Grammar in Context 5
NCTE had the right idea decades ago and still today it is a controversy. Even though efforts
have been made by NCTE and other researchers to make grammar instruction more functional,
critics have completely discredited the idea and continued with formal grammar taught in
isolation. The current research clearly shows that most students do not benefit from “skill and
drill” instruction on grammar, and in turn, it does not transfer into speaking or writing;
however, the struggle of “teaching it the way we were taught” still continues (Weaver; McNally
& Moreman, 2001).
Learners and Relevance
Too often, formal grammar instruction involves exercises in which students have a
minimal understanding. They become bored and simply go through the motions, realizing that
the teacher will get the answers from the teacher’s manual (Weaver, 1996). A heavy focus is
put on memorizing the rules of grammar, parts of speech, and the ability to locate errors.
Application is used only to circle or underline parts of speech within a sentence on textbook
activities or worksheets, in isolation. When the term isolation is used, it means that the
activities are done individually and are not relevant to what students are reading, writing, or
discussing in the classroom. For example, the sentence, “John had an exciting day.” could be
used to find the adjective, followed by ten more just the same. For students, an activity such as
this, can be described (using an adjective) as boring and irrelevant. Students then fail to see the
big picture and purpose of grammar. Research is cited over and over again suggesting that
isolated grammar instruction, out of the context of reading and writing is not effective, and
does not benefit or improve a student’s ability to speak or write (Patterson, 2001). Students,
who can see why we learn grammar, and how to use it to their benefit within their own life, will
Teaching Grammar in Context 6
discover that grammar is not a meaningless aspect of instruction within the school day, but a
tool that is used to create the beautiful, creative language we love to listen to and read.
In any context, when instruction is meaningful and relevant, it is more memorable and
effective. Learners, or students, have high expectations when it comes to their learning; like
adults, they do not want their time to be wasted. When students are fully engaged and
understand the reasoning and benefits behind the instruction; more than likely, they will be
willing, active participants. Teachers can foster this by providing authentic reading and writing
opportunities, along with helping them to notice their own strengths and needs. By
highlighting grammar that can be found anywhere outside the walls of school, such as in a
newspaper or magazine, students begin to see (discover) how it is used in their everyday lives
(Haussamen, et al., 2003).
Motivation
In order for students to be willing, active participants they need to be motivated to
learn, which can be difficult with grammar instruction. Motivation comes in a variety of forms.
Students can set goals for themselves, which in turn increases their motivation. These goals
can be driven by their need to learn information or to simply to receive good grades or
recognition. They may also have a natural curiosity for learning or feel the need to do well
because other students will be reading their writing during writer’s workshop. (Alexander,
2006) Motivation can be the difference maker in learning; it plays a key role in what is learned
and how and when it is learned (Gambrell, Malloy, & Mazzoni, 2007). Learners work best when
they are motivated and feel that there is a reason for learning what they are learning. When
Teaching Grammar in Context 7
students believe that what they are learning is valuable, can be used to complete a task, and
have a sense of control over the task, then their motivation will flourish (Marzano, 1991).
Educators need to be aware of this, particularly those who are consistently using worksheets
for grammar practice.
Unfortunately, not every student will be motivated to learn grammar or be willing to
actively participate in group work or discussion. These students may not feel that they are
capable, do not see the value in grammar, or be uncomfortable with sharing their work.
(Alexander, 2006) They do the minimal amount required to get the task completed and have no
real desire to internalize the material. Their goals for learning are short-term and the long-term
result of this is that they never truly learn grammar, which has an effect on their ability to read
and write (Tompkins, 2005). Therefore, teachers should get a grasp of what it is that motivates
students to learn and take charge of their learning. In addition, they should work to find
avenues for those who are not as motivated. Accepting the learner, and supporting them as a
learner, is likely to build their confidence and promote motivation (Weaver, 1996).
Social Interaction & Constructing Meaning
Grammar can be a difficult concept for students to master individually, particularly
because speaking is a large part of grammar. This is why social interaction is a very important
piece to grammar learning and instruction, and possibly the missing link in the more formal
methods of memorizing and underlining, which have failed. Social interaction and constructing
meaning go hand in hand; it is difficult to have success in one, without the other. It can be
Teaching Grammar in Context 8
argued that students can construct meaning without interacting with others; however, when
combined, teachers create situation optimal for learning.
Students need many supports for learning and talk is one of these supports. Talk is
important for learning grammar because students (or teacher) can think aloud together and
model or demonstrate what is correct through guided participation (Waugh & Jollife, 2008). By
the use of talk, social interaction can occur, which is needed so students can negotiate and
construct meaning. As students talk through problems, they can bounce ideas off of each other
to determine what works best. The same holds true with finding effective grammar as students
can talk about why the grammatical structures work so well.
In order for the interaction among students to be successful, they need to be in
collaborative groups, as suggested by Vygotsky. Collaborative groups work when a range of
students, with varied abilities work together to solve problems. (Dixon-Krauss, 1996) The goal
of this type of group is collaboration, in that students are able to constructively discuss and
decide on one right solution that is agreed upon by all. This is important for learners because
each member of the group will have an opportunity to teach and/or learn from each other.
A constructivist approach is often used in grammar instruction. This approach requires
teachers to leave behind individual grammar worksheets, teacher centered classrooms, and a
one-size-fits-all curriculum. Students are expected to learn and discover together with the goal
applying the concept without supports. In the right learning environment, students can
construct meaning with others, providing them with the opportunity to accomplish tasks that
they could not do alone or as well without the scaffolds of others.
Teaching Grammar in Context 9
Choice is also necessary. For example, when editing grammar in writing, students
should be allowed to choose specific areas in need of improvement, giving them purpose and a
sense of ownership of the task. (Weaver, 1996) Putting focus on one concept and allowing
students to gain a deep understanding of the particular concept will be more beneficial than
only taking a glimpse of many concepts. Teacher support is important for this concept as
students may initially need help on deciding what to choose and how to choose.
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Teachers can effectively create and foster an environment that encourages an authentic
teaching of grammar. As a teacher, it is important to understand that students will not
automatically discover the rules of grammar or errors made on their own. Over time, students
may be able to incidentally recognize patterns of grammar; however, knowing the students and
their needs will help when structuring mini-lessons and the learning environment to teach
grammatical skills. To avoid the stigma attached to grammar, it should be taught within context
of what students are working on, and not in isolation. Quick ‘daily doses’ of grammar and walls
filled with student created charts will help to reinforce the concepts. (Anderson, 2006) As
students become grammarians, their knowledge and skills should be shared with peers. In
most situations, having a peer to rely on can be a non-threatening resource; although some
students may not feel comfortable with the peer chosen. Creating a community that supports
this type of collaboration is an integral piece of a successful learning environment, as they learn
through social interactions with classmates and teachers. (Tompkins, 2005)
Teaching Grammar in Context 10
Risk-Free Community
In a grammar classroom, the idea is that it should meaning-based, and not solely
focused on correctness and rules. (Patterson, 2001) With this philosophy, it is crucial for
students to feel comfortable enough to take risks. They will need to understand that it is okay
to make errors and be willing to collaborate with their peers in order to discover the meaning
behind the terms or rules.
Creating this type of learning environment takes time and patience, at any grade level.
In her book, Reading with Meaning, Debbie Miller (2002) devotes a chapter to creating a
classroom community with positive relationships that foster thinking and discussion. She
believes that it is important to first build genuine relationships, establish mutual trust, and
create working literate environment (Miller, 2002). While the book was written for the primary
grades, the same concepts hold true for students at all grade levels, as they need to be more
willing to take risks, work collaboratively, and think about their own and their classmate’s
learning.
Keeping in mind that students will be taking a constructively critical view of each other’s
work, trusting relationships are needed within the classroom. Learners build trust with each
other as they get to know their classmates and teacher. They begin to value each other’s ideas
and contributions to the group and classroom. Teachers should communicate honestly with
students about goals and expectations, providing them with responsibilities and opportunities
to take charge of their own learning. (Short & Pierce, 1998) Giving students responsibility in
the classroom for their learning is extremely important, especially when they experiment with
Teaching Grammar in Context 11
difficult concepts, such as grammar. By doing this, students begin to see themselves as valued,
contributing learners in the classroom community (Tompkins, 2005). By creating this type of
environment, students can take advantage of socially interacting with their peers to foster their
learning to the highest potential.
The Teacher
The teacher’s actions and attitude play a very significant role in the classroom learning
environment. The risk-free classroom community that encourages collaboration and discovery
of grammar rules is not an easy task. The type of talk carried out by the teacher can make a
difference in the overall tone of the classroom. Today’s classroom has evolved from teacher as
the sole speaker to teacher as the facilitator of discussion among teacher and students. As
common as this has become, some students still face difficulty discussing in small and whole
group because their home and school environments differ, or they may have not had
experience with this type of discourse (Pinnell & Jaggar, 1991). Because of this, teachers need
to model what is expected of students in classroom discourse, removing all assumptions that
the students know what to do. Creating a community of learners who have built trusting,
working relationships is only the foundation of a successful learning environment.
When students are placed in a situation where they have to talk about and critique each
other’s work or collaborate together to look for patterns or meaning, the talk used in this
context should be explicitly modeled, at the right moment, by the teacher to avoid potential
problems that could arise during future discussion. For example, if students are editing a paper
and trying to determine the correct tense to use in a sentence, they should understand how to
Teaching Grammar in Context 12
discuss with each other and to do it in a way that does not offend the writer or the other peer
reviewers. Teachers should look for teachable moments when modeling explicitly, versus giving
a list of correct ways to talk. Understanding the viewpoint of the child and asking for or making
suggestions on the language that should be used—as a team—will demonstrate to the students
that their ideas are valuable. The teacher can also model “discussion” language and, most
importantly, discuss why this type of talk works better in discussion. (Miller, 2002)
However, Peter Johnston (2004) warns that teachers should be wary of their explicitness
when modeling. He believes that being too explicit about each utterance made in the
classroom may take the “thrill out of figuring” that happens during discussion, hence, removing
the opportunity for the student(s) to feel a sense of ownership of their learning. This could
potentially harm the student and teacher relationship, putting a dent in the classroom
community that was created. (Johnston, 2004) Knowing your students and making thoughtful
decisions will help to keep the tone of the community respectful and positive.
Physical Environment
Referring to Debbie Miller’s (2002) comment about a “working literate environment” in
the context of grammar instruction means that students should have many opportunities to
read, write, and view grammar, its rules, and the meaning behind the rules. Grammar has
been referred to, in several instances, as a reference tool. A tool used to make us better
speakers, writers, and to enhance our enjoyment in reading. It should not be referred to as a
subject in school. (Hillocks & Smith, 1991; Nunan, 2005; Vavra, 1996) This indicates that the
rules and discoveries of grammar should be displayed around the classroom and be accessible
Teaching Grammar in Context 13
for students to use. Students should be allowed to have scaffolds, such as notebooks, to use at
any time. The walls should be organized with charts and visuals to serve as reminders and
reinforcements. The most effective wall charts or visuals are those that students have created
together after they have been discussing patterns or meanings. (Anderson, 2006) When
students see their work displayed, they feel a sense of ownership and pride in their learning.
As the walls can quickly become a plethora of tools for the students, it is important to
keep in mind the idea that the environment should be a “working” environment. Concepts that
students have understood should be replaced with the new. Having walls charts that overlap
can be a distraction for students; therefore, they should be placed in an area where students
can refer to them easily once taken down.
The organization of the classroom is also critical for a successful community. The way in
which the teacher organizes the space is important for the variety of activities and learning
opportunities that take place in the classroom (Short & Pierce, 1998). Students need to be able
to move about freely in an arrangement that fosters student interaction and group work; a
classroom with desks aligned in rows is not very inviting. Daily routines and norms should be
established as well. Providing students with a sense of organization will add to the community
of learners by providing with comfort of knowing what to do.
Time needs to be spent on creating a classroom community of learners. While it could
be argued that this will take away from instructional time, it is important to remember that this
time spent can be integrated with teaching concepts as well. Providing structure in a trusting,
Teaching Grammar in Context 14
supportive, working environment will facilitate an environment that supports learning to its
fullest potential.
CURRICULUM AND LEARNING STRATEGIES
Sticking with tradition and providing students with grammar worksheets and textbooks
places limitations on what can be done in the classroom. If students are focused on completing
these line item tasks, they are not reading or writing. (Hauassamen; Kolln; & Wheeler, 2003) A
significant amount of time is wasted on completing activities that are meaningless to students.
According to NCTE (2002), students find grammar most interesting when they apply it to
authentic texts. Heeding to their advice, teachers can use real texts, such as newspaper
headlines, to locate various parts of speech. Children’s books can also be used. There are
various children’s books that focus on certain aspects of grammar, appropriate for all grade
levels. As students write, they make mistakes. A key component of the writing process is
editing. As students edit their work, independently or through peers, grammar mistakes can be
noted and support can be given. Within a writing workshop, teachers can design mini-lessons
to focus on specific issues students are having. Teachers should also read students’ writing and
become familiar with mistakes that are consistent so that lesson planning becomes more
beneficial to student learning. (Feng & Powers, 2005)
Reading
Wide reading is one of the best ways for students to improve on many concepts, such as
comprehension and vocabulary. Grammar fits into this category as well. As students read or
listen to good-quality literature being read, they are exposed to effective grammar and can
Teaching Grammar in Context 15
imitate it in their writing (Weaver, 1996). As they read literature that keeps their interest or
makes them laugh, they can begin to understand how grammar is used every day in their world.
There is a large quantity of great children’s books that offer examples of speaking and
writing, in terms of grammar. Many of those books, grammar concept books, have been
written specifically with explicit, repetitive examples of what grammar should look like; it is
easy for students to find the patterns of grammar in these types of books. For example, Eats,
Shoots, & Leaves: Why Commas Really Do Make a Difference (Truss, 2006) and Girls like
Spaghetti: Why You Can’t Manage without Apostrophes (Truss, 2007), were written with the
intention to be used to teach the tricky rules of commas and apostrophes, respectively. She
gives clear examples of when, where, and how each should be used. While these books do not
have the most intriguing story line, they are attractive and fun for children to read. This, in
turn, makes the lesson on commas and apostrophes more authentic and relevant than a
worksheet that does not engage or humor the students. When students are engaged in an
authentic way, their motivation goes up and they are more willing to accept the challenge of
learning new concepts (Alexander, 2006).
Books that do not offer such explicit, obvious examples can be valuable teaching tools as
well. Great books that children love often display a wonderful use of grammar in which
students can internalize. Officer Buckle and Gloria (Rathmann, 1995) is filled with great
examples that demonstrate the four sentence types. Mole’s Hill (Ehlert, 1994) contains
complex and compound sentences. Small group activities can be used to explore and discover
the grammar used in these books, as well as other books that exemplify grammar. For
Teaching Grammar in Context 16
example, after the mini-lesson (a brief lecture of value that can be applied immediately after
instruction (Rosen, 1998), students could search through the books looking for their favorite
sentences to categorize, such as sentence type. They could also choose their favorite sentences
to imitate. (Tompkins, 2005) Similar activities can also be created by using real world texts,
such as newspapers. Showing students that grammar exists in media outside of the classroom
will increase their awareness. Not only should teachers teach grammar, but also help students
stretch their minds to notice the rich texts in their world and the grammar they present. (Kane,
1996) As students begin to manipulate and take a deeper look at the grammar within various
types of children’s literature used in the classroom, they will begin to notice and apply effective
patterns of grammar.
Writing
While most people still believe that some form of grammar instruction is necessary, the
struggle lies in how to make it relevant and exciting. (Gribbin, 2005) Teaching grammar, not in
isolation, but in the context of writing is an excellent way for students to see how improving
their grammar knowledge can make a difference in their writing. Using writer’s workshop,
where mini-lessons, conferences, and constant discussion take place is an effective way to
increase grammar knowledge and awareness. When teachers engage students in the writing
process and discuss usage by using student work, then students can use grammar to improve
their writing (Bromley, 2007).
The process approach to writing and writer’s workshop requires the teacher to plan
carefully. The grammatical mini-lessons designed should be based on students’ work and
Teaching Grammar in Context 17
contain meaningful activities that directly tie to the writing process (Peterson, 1998). When
lessons are directly related to pieces that students are working on, they will see their growth
over time and recognize the improvements made from the first draft to the published copy.
Therefore, taking advantage of the authentic writing they provide is more useful than using
textbooks in isolation, as there is little to suggest that students learn or enjoy grammar from
those types of activities (Hillocks, Jr. & Smith, 1991). Using a textbook as the rule for grammar
instruction is difficult to completely justify, particularly when students provide pages and pages
of their own writing that display errors and grammar that can be improved or expanded on. If
teachers are not noticing pattern of significant grammatical errors in student writing, new
concepts or ideas can be introduced. Effective literature that provides examples of various
grammatical structures should be used to expand the skill of the writer.
Again, the teacher’s role and gumption to take risks is crucial in order to encourage
students to take risks as writers. Refusing to ignore “good enough” writing that can be
improved suggests that the teacher has confidence in the student’s ability. They need to be
guided through mini-lessons and conferences as teachers continually create ways to help
students take their grammar and writing to the next level. This can be done by allowing
students to experiment with different avenues of grammar in their writing, such as sentence
combining. Sentence combining requires the teacher to choose a dense sentence, break it up
into simple sentences, and have the students combine the sentences to recreate the author’s
original sentence (Tompkins, 2005).
Teaching Grammar in Context 18
Since the writing process is recursive, revising and editing can again spark mini-lessons
for improvement. (Weaver; McNally & Moreman, 2001) Of course, there will often be
wonderful examples of effective or improved grammar within the student’s writing. Paying
special attention to these examples and using them to illustrate effective grammar will increase
confidence and help students to become better observers of their own writing (Haussamen et
al., 2003).
Teachers can enticingly introduce grammar within a mini-lesson or conference.
However, within these discussions, as students begin to write, teachers should use caution
when telling students to focus on one specific aspect of grammar, such as the adverbs or
adjectives, as it could limit what they would do naturally. (Weaver; McNally & Moreman, 2001)
The grammar should be used as a tool to bolster their writing with the thought that all areas of
grammar are important and not just the one taught in the mini-lesson.
Image grammar, as described by Harry Noden (1998), “Encourages students to approach
writing as art by using grammatical structures as brush strokes.” He discovered that imagery
played a role in the writing process by influencing writers to choose grammatical structures that
shaped their writing. Using imagery, students should be encouraged to show and not tell in
their writing, paying attention to detail so that the reader can see the writing. Providing
students with rich, vibrant pieces of art can also spark writing that is detailed and full of
imagery for the writer to pour into their paper. (Noden, 1998) Though it may seem, this
method does not entirely omit the naming of grammatical structures using their technical
terms, such as verbs or participles. The terms are “useful, but not necessary” (Schuster, 1999).
Teaching Grammar in Context 19
Consequently, Noden (1998) does make the point that the technical terms should be kept
simple and not be the initial focus of the writing or mini-lesson, suggesting that teachers ask
students begin with “–ing words”, for example. By doing this, students can focus on creating a
piece that engages the reader.
In their book Grammar Alive! A Guide for Teachers, Haussamen, et al. (2003) provide
several examples of how teachers can teach grammar the writing classroom. As a way to
initiate thought and discussion, they can be presented with three sentences, each stating the
same idea but tells a different story. For example, using: The shark bit his leg, to the bone. The
shark bit his leg to the bone. The shark bit his leg. To the bone. Through discussion students
begin to see how sentence choice and organization can effect the reader. As students read
literature that demonstrates effective grammar, they can begin to imitate sentences in their
own writing. Teachers can use sentence imitation as a tool to introduce specific grammatical
structures or students can experiment with sentences to use in their own writing. Students can
pick up on this activity fairly quickly and can be creative with their imitations, which adds a fun
twist to the instruction. This strategy will make students conscious of the grammar they are
using and encourage creativity, paving the way for successful writing. (Haussamen, et al, 2003)
In today’s classroom, it is very common to find diversity and students whose native
language is not English, or English Language Learners (ELL). The same concepts hold true for
teaching these students through the use of mini-lessons, conferences, reading, and writing in a
community of learners who feel comfortable to take risks. According to the Committee on
School Practices and Programs of the NCTE (1993), ELLs learn best under those conditions. One
Teaching Grammar in Context 20
of the most important aspects for teachers to remember is that, when learning a new language,
many ‘errors’ will occur in their speaking and writing, and that these errors are normal for
language development. (Weaver, 1996) As students have more practice with the language and
can take part in mini-lessons and conferences, then these errors are likely to occur less often.
Many strategies should be used and applied to the grammar classroom in order to
discover which method will work best for students.
ASSESSMENT
Assessment, when given to determine students’ strengths and needs in the context of
what they are learning, can be a very powerful tool for teachers. Ongoing assessments within a
classroom can provide teachers with knowledge to develop effective instruction. When
assessing grammar knowledge, students must be provided with more than one opportunity to
demonstrate success. (Cobb, 2003/2004) Using non-traditional, informal methods of
assessment, teachers can learn more about their students and the strategies that are most
valuable to them.
Like grammar, assessments have a bad reputation with students, and even teachers.
This may be caused by the spotlight of standardized testing and the lack of authentic tasks that
these types of tests have come to promote. In addition, the results fail to give an accurate
measurement of what the child is capable of, giving students a discouraged feeling (Dixon-
Krauss, 1996). Most have traditional assessment ideas in their mind, of multiple-choice or fill in
the blank questions that require students to recall information that may or may not be relevant
to their lives as learners. A teacher could use this method to assess grammar; however, it does
Teaching Grammar in Context 21
not test their ability to apply their knowledge in real situations. When speaking or writing in
the real world, life does not provide us with multiple choices when deciding on the correct
grammatical structure to use.
Informal Assessments
To remedy the negative thoughts about assessment, teachers need to make use of
informal assessments. Informal assessments include, but are not limited to: portfolios,
checklists, anecdotal notes, student evaluations, and journals. Informal assessments can also
be termed as authentic assessments. They are authentic because the methods used to
evaluate students, such as the examples stated above, are based on real work done in the
classroom. The focus of informal assessments in grammar should be the on the errors students
are making, as well as what they are doing well, in order to plan future instruction. The
application of traditional tests, in a worksheet format, simply do not help teachers to find ways
to influence instruction, identify strengths, or determine grades for the purpose of helping
students succeed. Teachers also need to keep in mind that some errors are more critical than
others, and it is important to choose wisely when planning for instruction. (Tompkins, 2005)
Bombarding a student with a list full of errors during a mini-lesson or conference can put a dent
in their motivation. Of course they need to know that there are several aspects of their writing,
for example, that can be improved; however, teachers need to let them know that some are
more important than others to fix at this point in time. Focusing on too many errors at a time
may also lead to a superficial understanding of the task.
Teaching Grammar in Context 22
Not every assessment needs to be graded, especially if it is taking place daily. Some
assessments are basic evaluations so the teacher can monitor progress and address needs. This
type of assessment is also important because it can provide teachers with information that can
be used to address problems and concerns in classroom; it can also be coined as a dynamic
assessment (Dixon-Krauss, 1996). With Vygotsky and the zone of proximal development in
mind, teachers are able to assess what students are in the process of learning with social
interaction. For example, during writer’s workshop or reading activities that require students
to search for grammar, teachers can assess students by kidwatching, student evaluation, or
individual conferences. With these, teachers can get a first-hand account of how the student
completes the task and the strategies being used. Checklists are an easy to use when observing
because teachers can chart students’ attitudes, strengths, and struggles, as well as the types of
model texts they gravitate toward (Goodman, 1991). Teachers benefit from assessing, or
gathering information, everyday by using a checklist because they can make notes of the
individual and collective needs of the class (Anderson, 2005). Teachers can then decide to
convey certain information through an individual conference or collectively, through a mini-
lesson. All of these combined help to link assessment and instruction because it happens
during application, and not after. The after is what standardized assessments evaluate.
Ongoing and Multiple ways of Assessment
“Effective instruction begins with purposeful assessments” (Cobb, 2003/2004). The key
word in this statement is assessments; there should be more than one type and they should
happen more than once. In a classroom with reading/writing workshops and ample
Teaching Grammar in Context 23
opportunities for speaking and listening to take place through discussion, assessing often in
multiple ways seems to coincide with what is already happening on a day-to-day basis.
In making an argument for more research on informal methods of evaluation, Yetta
Goodman (1991) uses the term interpretative evaluation. By this, she means that teachers
should evaluate their students daily in a variety of ways for the purpose of getting to know your
students on a deeper level. The reasoning is so that teachers can fully understand their
students’ strengths, needs, and the best possible strategies to use for instruction. In addition, as
teachers continually build relationships with students, observe, and conference with students,
they have opportunities to reflect on their own teaching and the methods of evaluation, or
assessment, they are using. (Goodman, 1991) Reflection and evaluation of oneself is equally
important to the instruction. It helps a teacher to decide how the learners are learning best
and which methods of assessment to use.
With respect to assessing grammar, students need to be able to demonstrate their
knowledge through more than one means and have opportunities to see growth over time.
(Cobb, 2003/2004) Portfolios satisfy this criterion by including samples of student work, such as
the life of a piece written from start to finish or a list of patters of grammar found in a model
text. Growth can also be noticed over periods of time by looking at the final products of their
work. Students can notice common errors they were making at the beginning of the year or
additions to their grammar knowledge. They may notice that they now use the correct ‘there,
they’re, or their, or have imitated more complex grammatical phrases from model texts.
Portfolios also allow for student reflection as they take a critical look at the work they have
Teaching Grammar in Context 24
completed when making a decision on which pieces to include. However, once students
choose work for their portfolio, or self-assess and evaluate other tasks, the reflection process is
not complete. Teachers need to have students write why the particular piece belongs in the
portfolio or how they feel about the work completed, including strengths and areas thought to
be difficult (Alexander, 2006). This helps the teacher gain a deeper understanding into what
the student truly knows about the task.
Making use of assessments that represent application of grammar skills, to drive
instruction is the only way for teachers to get a true measurement of a student’s strengths and
needs. When teachers can catch errors and effective uses of grammar in the act, it is easy to
support learning.
CONCLUSION
The overall message for teachers is that they should not be afraid to teach grammar.
Many teachers have bad memories of the way they were taught (in isolation) and avoid
grammar instruction as much as possible. It is no longer about a strict reliance on rules and
terms that must be memorized in order to learn grammar. If fact, memorizing the rules and
terms of grammar is not learning grammar; grammar is learned best when applied to a real
reading or writing situation (Peterson, 1998).
Teachers can provide their students with the most effective methods and strategies for
teaching students by using the current research as a backbone for instruction. Choosing a
method, based on the needs of students, with the use of authentic texts, can change the tone
of grammar within a classroom. Creating an environment that fosters the use of real texts and
Teaching Grammar in Context 25
constant reminders of rules will allow students to discover the world of grammar around them,
using it to improve their communication skills. Providing a plethora of meaningful activities for
students to practice and assess their grammar knowledge will demonstrate the value of
teaching grammar in the context of real reading and writing, giving students a tool to use for
the rest of their lives.
IMPLICATIONS AND QUESTIONS
As mentioned in the history of grammar, the methods of grammar instruction have been
debated and discussed. Why is it so difficult to move away from teaching grammar in isolation
—relying only on line item worksheets? The research clearly states what works and provides
activities that have proven to be effective. It is possible that grammar instruction needs to have
a more explicit role in teacher education (I do not recall any specific lessons on how to teach
it.). Or maybe, it is because teachers are not confident enough in their own grammar
knowledge and become reluctant to step to go above and beyond.
Whatever the case, those who advocate for effective, research based instruction should
continue to have their voice heard in order to prevent generations of students from
remembering grammar as something they circled and underlined on a worksheet.
Teaching Grammar in Context 26
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