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Carbon in Earth Midterm Report of the Deep Carbon Observatory Inside/Outside Cover Material DCO Mission DCO Organizational Structure Decadal Goals Map(s)
Carbon in Earth Midterm Report of the Deep Carbon Observatory
Inside/Outside Cover Material DCO Mission DCO Organizational
Structure Decadal Goals Map(s) Inside/Outside Text
Achievements/Discoveries Quantities Movements Forms Origins Next
Five Years Cameos FUTURE VOLUMES
Slide 2
Carbon in Earth QUANTITITES, MOVEMENTS, FORMS, ORIGINS The Deep
Carbon Observatory is laying the groundwork for a new science of
one of natures key elements. As such, the Observatory seeks to
determine the quantities, movements, forms, and origins of carbon
in our planet. Each goal comes with questions that we proposed to
answer during the current decade. These questions are being tackled
by interdisciplinary science teams in communities spanning 50
countries. As we move into the second half of the program, we will
answer our decadal questions, while at the same time expanding our
purview to target significant new programs connected with carbon in
Earth and in extreme environments. DCO Midterm Report 1. Quantities
2. Movements 3. Forms 4. Origins Reservoirs and Fluxes Deep Life
Deep Energy Extreme Physics and Chemistry } Matrix Communities and
phenomena Distinguish between fully supported and leveraged DCO
projects 16 page high-level summary OVERVIEW
Slide 3
How much carbon is in Earth? What are the relative amounts of
carbon-bearing phases? What physical and chemical properties of the
interior affect carbon storage in different regions ? Carbon, as it
presents itself to us at the surface of our planet, exists in three
different oxidation states. This variation is not well determined
at depth. Diamond in the mantle as reservoirs and indicators of
mantle chemistry. Carbon should not be considered in isolation; it
is a component within complex chemical systems fluids, melts, and
solids that comprise our planet. Among the most significant is
water. Discoveries by DCO scientists have led to the realization
that there are significant unexpected reservoirs of carbon. Having
an estimate of the extent of the deep biosphere has implications
for understanding how much carbon is stored in Earth. DCO Midterm
Report 1. Quantities OVERVIEW
Slide 4
EPC Spin transition and elasticity of Mg-Fe carbonate. RF
Ultradeep diamonds formed within Earths transition zone trap
inclusions of minerals. EPC New deep Earth water model that permits
computation of carbon transport by aqueous fluids. 1 1 EPC The
puzzling transition of low-density water to high-density water. 2 2
EPC Direct measurements of carbonate ion speciation in
high-pressure aqueous fluids. 3 3 RF Redox state of mantle Cottrell
and Kelley paper 4 and Stagno et al Nature 5paper 4Nature 5 EPC
Magnesite as a deep carbon reservoir 6reservoir 6 EPC Liu et al. 7
spin transition Same lab ferromag as a C host 8 7spin transitionC
host 8 RF Mantle Temperature at Mid-Ocean Ridges (Kelley
Perspective 9 in Science)Perspective 9 RF Carbon Dioxide Content of
the Icelandic Mantle Barry et al 10Barry et al 10 RF Mantle Carbon
Content Influences Plate Tectonics Sifre et al 11Sifre et al 11 RF
Remarkably, Carbon Isotope fractionation in the mantle Mikhail et
al 12Mikhail et al 12 RF Geochem of diamonds: Review by Shirey and
Shigley 13Review 13 RF EPC Olivine inclusion and mantle
compositionmantle composition RF Diamond formation in 2 stages, 1
billion years apart Bulanova et al 14Bulanova et al 14 EPC C
coordination in silicates Navrotsky et al 15Navrotsky 15 EPC
Polymeric carbon dioxide as a stable form of C in the mantle 16C in
the mantle 16 EPC Two groups solve structure of polymeric CO 2 17,
18polymeric CO 2 1718 EPC Galli and Sverjensky dielectric constant
of water 19dielectric constant 19 RF Hirschman review 20review 20
EPC Refractive index of water under increasing pressure
21Refractive index 21 RF Diamondite formation in the mantle Mikhail
et al 22Mikhail et al 22 DL CoDL developments DL Presence of life
in crust Lever et al 23Lever et al 23 DL Global estimates of
subseafloor life DHondt PNAS 24DHondt PNAS 24 DCO Midterm Report 1.
Quantities DISCOVERIES TO DATE
Slide 5
DCO Midterm Report The discovery of water-rich ringwoodite in a
diamond by Pearson et al. changes our view of the water (and
presumably other volatile) content of mantle. The paper raises the
possibility of many oceans being stored in the transition zone.
This finding may have significant implications for our
understanding of the deep water/hydrogen cycle and the possible
effects on the properties of the minerals in that region. This
result is an example of what carbon (i.e., diamond) can tell us
about the abundance of other components (i.e., water) in the deep
Earth. Pearson, D. G. et al., Hydrous mantle transition zone
indicated by ringwoodite included within diamond, Nature 507,
221-224 (2014). 1. Quantities Diamond Reveals Oceans of Water at
Depth BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 6
DCO Midterm Report The implementation of two methodologies for
the analysis of clumped methane isotopes is a far-reaching
development/discovery and potentially can integrate research from
all DCO communities. Clumped methane isotopes can reveal otherwise
inaccessible secrets regarding the source and formation mechanism
of methane. Clumped methane isotope measurements are triggering new
research on isotopic fractionation that will result in an improved
understanding of the biogeochemistry of methane in the environment.
Future extensions to larger carbon-bearing molecules is
particularly relevant for the identification of unique biosynthetic
signatures The quantum cascade laser to measure the isotopologues
of methane to distinguish geological and biological sources of
methane in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere is a
tremendous achievement. Ono, S. et al., Measurement of a
doubly-substituted methane isotopologue, 13 CH 3 D, by tunable
infrared laser direct absorption spectroscopy, Analyt. Chem. 86,
6487-6494 (2014); Young, E. et al. to be published 1. Quantities
Clumped Isotope Signatures of Methane Sources BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 7
What is the global carbon budget and nature of the deep carbon
cycle? The global carbon flux extends the question of carbon
reservoirs, an area with major implications for human energy
resources at depth. Carbon moves in crustal fluids sequestered
naturally but also it is released through multiple mechanisms. The
intake and release on the global scale constitutes the deep carbon
cycle. Owing to advances made by DCO scientists in the past five
years, we are just now beginning to understand that cycle,
including both large apparent discrepancies between intake and
release and the nature of smaller epicycles DCO Midterm Report 2.
Movements OVERVIEW
Slide 8
RF Zeolites masquerading carbonititic tuffs 25 25 DE RiMG vol
edited by Navrotsky and Cole on C sequestration 26sequestration 26
RF Metastable graphite intermediates in crustal fluids Foustoukos
27 Foustoukos 27 RF Graphite formation during subductionsubduction
RF DECADE activities: Costa Rica and NicaraguaCosta RicaNicaragua
RF Carbon in silicate melts 28melts 28 RF Measuring outgassing
Mather 29Mather 29 RF Diamond morphology suggests how they move
from mantle to surface 30surface 30 DE DL Methane hydrate field
movement 31movement 31 RF New Constraints on the Deep Carbon Cycle
(carbonates and CO 2 degassing)carbonates and CO 2 degassing RF
Ague paper movement of CO 2 from subduction zone to volcanoes 32 32
RF Clues in Chilean lavas Mather et al 33Mather et al 33 RF Earths
ancient carbon cycle and the first ice age 34ice age 34 RF Mars
ancient carbon cycle 35cycle 35 RF Rajdeep Dasgupta chapter in RiMG
36RiMG 36 RF Movements of diamonds through mantle Walter et al
Science 37Science 37 RF Diamonds and the beginning of plate
tectonics on Earth Shirey and Richardson 38Shirey and Richardson 38
EPC/RF Oxygen fugacity at forearcs and carbon movement in the
mantle Lazar et al 39Lazar et al 39 DCO Midterm Report DISCOVERIES
TO DATE 2. Movements
Slide 9
DCO Midterm Report A significant achievement is the discovery
of the doubling of known volcanic CO 2 emissions. Significant
outgassing is connecting deep carbon to the air we breathe, and the
numbers are only increasing. Couple this with diffuse outgassing
(e.g. from tectonic regions), and we have a long term contribution
to make to climate change models, and to societies concern over
carbon and tax. There is a great opportunity to consolidate our
connection with NASA and look at our own planet with scrutiny with
some urgency to assess carbon- based and greenhouse gases. At a
time when the hydrocarbon industry is lurching towards shale gas,
etc., we need spatially-resolved and time-resolved atmospheric data
all the more, to assess the before and after of regional and local
energy operations in the context of the natural environment.
Burton, M. R. et al., Deep carbon emissions from volcanoes, in
Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry: Carbon in Earth (eds. R.
Hazen, Jones, A. P. and Baross, J. A.), 75, 323-354 (2013). 2.
Movements Volcanic Degassing BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 10
DCO Midterm Report The summer school in Yellowstone captured a
facet of volcanic degassing similarly under appreciated on the
planet, namely that active carbon emission through a nominally
"inactive" system rivals the most "active" volcano, and the
interaction between fluids in the crust and degassing carbon
directly connects, again, the biosphere to deep earth volatiles
requiring multidisciplinary science to untangle (and a new
generation of carbon scientists we are truly helping to educate and
transform). Capturing young scientists' minds and enabling pathways
for their early careers in DCO are tremendous legacy goals we are
already starting to achieve. They will also need the valuable
databases, which DCO is creating. 2. Movements Volcanic Degassing
(contd) BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 11
DCO Midterm Report The upper mantle is pervasively soaked in a
carbonate-rich melt. This melt is the precursor to all magmatism,
and also lubricates the plates. DCO has helped revolutionized
understanding of the mantle melting beneath mid-ocean ridges. It is
very likely that precursors to Earths most important magmatic
system, mid-ocean ridges, are carbonate-rich melts of low melt
fraction. These react progressively with the mantle as they rise,
eventually becoming MORB. If true, all CO 2 degassed at ridges
originated carbonate rich magma. This explains recent evidence for
deeper melting beneath ridges. Dasgupta, R., A. Mallik, K. Tsuno,
A. C. Withers, G. Hirth, and M. M. Hirschmann, Carbon-dioxide-rich
silicate melt in the Earth's upper mantle, Nature 493, 211-215
(2013). 2. Movements Carbon-soaked upper mantle melts
BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 12
What forms and structures of carbon and carbon-bearing phases
exist and prevail in Earth? Novel carbon structures and chemical
reactions are being documented, observationally, experimentally and
theoretically. Structurally, electronically, and chemically, carbon
can behave mimic other elements in the Periodic Table (e.g.,
silicon, which is cosmochemically abundant). Novel carbon phases
are leading to new physics, and to carbon-based devices with
potential implications for materials science and technology. The
questions of diversity of carbon forms also touches on biological
diversity. Observations over the past five years have led to
remarkable findings, and surprising correlations are emerging. DCO
Midterm Report 3. Forms OVERVIEW
Slide 13
EPC Spanu et al 43Spanu et a 43 EPC Struzhkin et al 49 defects
in synthetic diamond for quantum computingStruzhkin et al 49 EPC
Extreme Conditions and the Periodic Table Bini et al 47Bini et al
47 EPC Carbon substitution for Si in ceramics Navrotsky et al
40Navrotsky et al 40 EPC Methane forms heavy hydrocarbons not just
diamond and H 2 Lobanov et al 41Lobanov et al 41 EPC Novel Carbon
structure various authors (not sure DCO contrib)various authors EPC
Carbon storage in the mantle Wu and Buseck 42 42 RF Formation of
carbonados Ishibashi et al 44Ishibashi et al 44 EPC Amorphous
carbon forms crystalline material at high P Mao et al 45Mao et al
45 EPC High pressure crystals of methane clathrates Tulk et al
46Tulk et al 46 EPC More from Wu and Buseck 48Wu and Buseck 48 EPC
Superconducting C polymers at high P Dias et al 50Dias et al 50 EPC
Using moissanite to compress methane 51 51 DL The deep virosphere
Baross et al 52Baross et al 52 DL Subseafloor microbial populations
2 publications 53, 542 publications 5354 DL Distribution of similar
microbes around the world Moser 55Moser 55 DL Review of deep life
Colwell et al 56Colwell et al 56 DL Directed evolution at high
pressure Vanlint et al (not sure DCO contrib) 57Vanlint et al 57 DL
Deep nematode worms TC Onstott et al 58TC Onstott et al 58 DL
Visualizing diversity Pham et al 59Pham et al 59 DCO Midterm Report
DISCOVERIES TO DATE 3. Forms
Slide 14
DCO Midterm Report One of the greatest discovery of DCO to date
is the calculation of the dielectric constant of water under
extreme conditions of pressure and temperature. This has opened the
possibility of understanding deep fluids, thanks to the DEW model
and to a series of experiments. This advance has deeply changed our
understanding of the chemistry of deep fluids that are a major
agent of transport of carbon. Whilst carbon in deep fluids has
mostly been considered previously as oxidized, DCO has changed the
view -- with potentially a lot more reduced carbon in the deep
Earth. The model is a fundamental and lasting contribution with the
promise of revolutionizing our understanding mantle fluid
geochemistry. Pan, D. et al., Dielectric properties of water under
extreme conditions and transport of carbonates in the deep Earth,
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 110, 6646-6650 (2013). 3. Forms Nature of
Water at Depth BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 15
DCO Midterm Report The detailed determination of the crystal
structure of polymeric, silica-like CO 2, together with the
determination of their stability range, open vast new possibilities
for carbon storage at high pressure. This is now even more viable
with demonstration of CO 2 -SiO 2 solid solution, forming a
cristobalite-type mixed polymeric structures. Santoro, M. et al.,
Carbon enters silica forming a cristobalite-type CO 2 -SiO 2 solid
solution, Nature Comm. 5, 3761 (2014). 3. Forms BREAKTHROUGHS Dense
Polymeric SiO 2 -CO 2
Slide 16
What is the origin of various forms of carbon? What can deep
carbon tell us about the origins of life, Earth, and the Solar
System? How do conditions of the deep Earth affect life and what
does this tell us about the origins of life? Carbon and
carbon-bearing materials includes prebiotic systems and life
itself. Carbon atoms are born in exploding supernova, but what has
been their subsequent trajectory ot the present? Thus, we use
carbon as historical tracer, a recorder of events into the depths
of not only space but also time. We have the opportunity to study
carbon in meteorites, planetary surfaces, and planetary
atmospheres. Serpentinization and geologic hydrogen production
fuels deep ecosystems. New discoveries made in mineralogy provide
fossil evidence for early life. New measurements are allowing us to
distinguish between abiotic and biotic sources of hydrocarbons DCO
Midterm Report 4. Origins OVERVIEW
Slide 17
DL Microhydrogarnets that may have constituted a prebiotic
environment of prime interest for studying the emergence of the
first microbial cells on earth. EPC ZnS cleanly catalyzes a
fundamental chemical reaction the making and breaking of a C-H
bond. 63 63 DE Ancient water and implications for origins of life
here and on other planets. 67Ancient water 67 DE Continental
Lithosphere doubles global hydrogen flux estimates for the deep
biosphere DE DL Aluminum catalysis of serpentinization
60serpentinization 60 DE DL Low-temperature serpentinization
McCollom et al 61McCollom et al 61 DE DL Serpentinization in
subseafloor mantle and origins of life Menez et al 62Menez et al 62
DE DL Sphalerite catalyzes hydrothermal reactions Shipp, Shock et
al 63Shipp, Shock et al 63 DE DL Minerals present on Earth at birth
of life Hazen 64Hazen 64 RF DL Earths atmosphere at the birth of
life Marty et al 65 and Pujol, Marty, Burgess et al 34Marty et al
65Pujol, Marty, Burgess et al 34 DL Fossils of ancient ecosystem
(oldest maybe?) found in Australia Noffke and Hazen 66Noffke and
Hazen 66 DL Methane as a source of food Boetius paper 68paper 68 DL
Piezophillic organisms in nature and the lab (review) Picard and
Daniel 69Picard and Daniel 69 DE DL Geochemical constraints on deep
life Pockalny, DHondt et al 70Pockalny, DHondt et al 70 DL Sulfate
starvation in deep ecosystems Bowles, Hinrichs et al 71Hinrichs et
al 71 DCO Midterm Report DISCOVERIES TO DATE 4. Origins
Slide 18
DCO Midterm Report Shipp, J. A. et al., Sphalerite is a
geochemical catalyst for carbonhydrogen bond activation, Proc. Nat.
Acad. Sci. 111, 11642-11645 (2014). The generation of hydrocarbons
by mineral reactions, and in particular, the catalysis of organic
reactions by sulfide minerals, in the laboratory represent a major
advance This discovery bridges the gap between organic and
inorganic chemistry, which is in itself a scientific game-changer,
and places the generation of DNA-type molecules and eventually life
within the mineral world. The most favorable systems for eventful
interactions between organic and inorganic compounds, i.e.
hydrothermal systems, have been identified/confirmed. 4. Origins
Hydrocarbon Generation at Mineral Surfaces BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 19
DCO Midterm Report The discovery of very old waters in the
Canadian shield by Holland et al. has important implications for
very ancient deep biosphere. Noble gas data are used to determine
the protozeroic age of the waters. Holland, G. et al., Deep
fracture fluids isolated in the crust since the Precambrian era,
Nature 497, 357-360 (2013). 4. Origins The existence of very old
and deep pockets of water, isolated from the surface for almost the
last 3 billions of years, has potential to host (more recent)
microbial life sustained by hydrogen. This feature, as the result
of the interaction between rocks and water, may be the most
important one through the history of the Earth and other planets in
the Solar System and is closely related to the origin of life. 3
Billion Year Old Water BREAKTHROUGHS
Slide 20
Kallmeyer et al., Global distribution of microbial abundance
and biomass in subsea floor sediment, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109
16213-16216 (2012). Research from the DCO has reduced estimates of
microbes in the subseafloor by one order of magnitude relative to
Barney Whitmans classic PNAS paper on the number of microbes in
different environmental contexts. DCO Midterm Report The
influential work by Kallmeyer et al. provides to date most accurate
estimate of the microbial biomass in the global subseafloor; it
improves the mechanistic understanding of the distribution of
microbial life in the subsea floor. 4. Origins BREAKTHROUGHS
Subsurface Microbial Biomass
Slide 21
DCO Midterm Report A research team using 200 borehole samples
from 32 continental sites world estimated the first global estimate
of H 2 sources (radiolysis, serpeninization) from the Precambrian
continental lithosphere. This previously neglected H 2 source is on
the order of in put from marine hydrothermal systems and may double
the global hydrogen flux estimate for the deep biosphere 4. Origins
BREAKTHROUGHS Hydrogen Fuels the Deep Biosphere Sherwood Lollar,
B., et al. Continental lithosphere doubles global hydrogen flux
estimates for the deep biosphere, submitted
Slide 22
Cameos DCO Early Career Scientist Network Bringing People
Together Panorama Mass Spectrometer Serpentine Days Workshop Kazan
Workshop on Abiotic Hydrocarbons DCO Global Field Studies DCO
Midterm Report
Slide 23
Earth through time and the origins of life are now questions we
will address in the next five years. The natural connections with
space and planetary research as a future area we may be able to
enhance, which stem from the outstanding concept of mineral
evolution and mineral diversity at Earths dynamic exosphere.
Origins of Life NEXT FIVE YEARS Deep Carbon and Deep Time The deep
time data Infrastructure, including new fundamental models along
with vast data and modeling resources in an open-access platform
could be a major breakthrough, at least in terms of its
contribution to the global scientific community to do new things.
This effort is building a new scientific instrument, available to
everyone, that will be an engine of discovery about Earth's
changing geosphere and biosphere through deep time. The statistical
and visualization features we have in mind will make this
"instrument" an absolutely new and transformative advance.
Slide 24
DCO Midterm Report Earths Carbon Budget DCO has created a
world-wide community of scientists who really work together
according to a well-defined plan, linking strands of research that
complement one another and that otherwise would have been carried
out out of sync. The problem of the Earth carbon budget is truly a
global one and needs to be tackled at the appropriate scale. New
Carbon-based Materials New discoveries of the physics and chemistry
of carbon under extreme conditions raise the possibility of
creating altogether new carbon and carbon-rich materials with
extraordinary properties for a range of new technologies (e.g.,
superconductors, sensors, thermoelectrics, high-strength
components) Biophysics (EPC-B) Systematic exploration of
fundamental physico-chemical origin of biological processes in
extreme environments could lead to breakthroughs in understanding
form and function of organisms and ecosystems in the deep
biosphere. NEXT FIVE YEARS
Slide 25
Diamond Nanothreads [Fitzgibbons et al., Nature Mat.,
2014]
Slide 26
A potential new satellite would be able to be targeted with a
high resolution footprint of ~500 m and would counterbalance
existing global missions like OCO-2. It could be attractive to
industry and agencies for monitoring, both anthropogenic and
natural emissions. and we could point at an active volcano when it
erupts. The first satellite detection of CO 2 in an explosive
eruption plume would open the door for finally quantifying point
sources of carbon into the atmosphere, needed to understand natural
vs anthropogenic fluxes. This discovery from the DCO will end up
affecting climate research as well. DCO Midterm Report Satellite
Observations of Carbon Emissions NEXT FIVE YEARS
Slide 27
DCO Midterm Report An important new opportunity is he on-going
Rosetta mission which sniffs out gases released by comet 67P/CG,
500 millions km from the Earth. Results will certainly give strong
constraints on the origin of water, carbon and other volatile
elements on terrestrial planets. And this is exploration at its
purest level. DCO scientists are associated with groups who built
and are in charge of the mass spectrometers on board of the
spacecraft. The origin of this carbon is clearly a first-order
cosmological problem. Missions Beyond the Earth NEXT FIVE
YEARS
Slide 28
DCO Midterm Report Nature of Extrasolar Carbon The recognition
that planets are commonplace in the cosmos, some having variable
compositions, including some that are carbon-rich, open up new
prospects for the DCO where its techniques, methodologies, and
expertise could be applied to the nature of carbon well beyond our
Solar System (Deep Space Carbon Observatory). New Physics of
Ultradense Carbon Materials New facilities and instruments for
exploring matter and materials to P-T conditions that are orders of
magnitude more extreme than current approaches. Both P and T can be
independently controlled from cold, warm, and hot dense matter
approaching stellar interiors. The succcess is demonstrated by the
landmark highly accurate measurement of the compression of diamond
to 50 Mbar at the National Ignition Facility (LLNL). NEXT FIVE
YEARS