ch 01 lecture 7thA - Mission Collegestreaming.missioncollege.org/dlamkin/media/BIOSC_047...PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations prepared by Leslie Hendon University of Alabama, Birmingham

8/24/13

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© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by Leslie Hendon University of Alabama, Birmingham

1 PART 1

The Human Body: An Orientation


An Overview of Anatomy

•  Anatomy

•  The study of the structure of the human body

•  Physiology

•  The study of body function



•  Subdisciplines of anatomy

•  Gross anatomy • Regional anatomy •  Systemic anatomy

•  Surface anatomy

•  Microscopic anatomy (histology)



•  Other branches of anatomy

•  Developmental anatomy

•  Embryology

•  Pathological anatomy (pathology)

•  Radiographic anatomy

•  Functional morphology



•  Anatomical terminology

•  Based on ancient Greek or Latin

•  Provides standard nomenclature worldwide


The Hierarchy of Structural Organization

•  Chemical level •  Atoms form molecules

•  Cellular level •  Cells and their functional subunits

•  Tissue level •  A group of cells performing a common function

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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization

•  Organ level •  A discrete structure made up of more than one

tissue

•  Organ system level •  Organs working together for a common purpose

•  Organismal level •  The result of all simpler levels working in unison


Figure 1.1 Recognizing connections between structural levels leads to better understanding of organismal function.


Integumentary System •  Forms external body covering •  Protects deeper tissues from injury

•  Synthesizes vitamin D •  Site of cutaneous receptors

•  (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands

Skeletal System •  Protects and supports body organs •  Provides a framework for muscles

•  Blood cells formed within bones •  Stores minerals

Muscular System •  Allows manipulation of environment

•  Locomotion •  Facial expression

•  Maintains posture •  Produces heat


Nervous System •  Fast-acting control system •  Responds to internal and external changes

Endocrine System •  Glands secrete hormones that regulate:

•  Growth •  Reproduction •  Nutrient use

Cardiovascular System •  Blood vessels transport blood

•  Blood carries oxygen and carbon dioxide

•  It also carries nutrients and wastes •  Heart pumps blood through blood vessels

Lymphatic System/Immunity •  Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels •  Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system •  Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) •  Mounts attack against foreign substances in the body


Respiratory System •  Keeps blood supplied with oxygen •  Removes carbon dioxide

•  Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in the lungs

Digestive System •  Breaks down food into absorbable units •  Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces

Urinary System •  Eliminates nitrogenous wastes •  Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance

Male & Female Reproductive Systems •  Overall function is to produce offspring •  Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones •  Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones •  Mammary glands produce milk


Scale: Length, Volume, and Weight

•  System of measurement in anatomy is the metric system •  Meter

•  Micrometer

•  Liter

•  Milliliter

•  Kilogram

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Gross Anatomy—An Introduction

•  Regional and directional terms •  Anatomical position—a common visual

reference point •  Person stands erect with feet together and

eyes forward •  Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs

pointed away from the body


Gross Anatomy—An Introduction

•  Regional terms •  Axial region

•  Axis of body – head, neck, and trunk

•  Appendicular region

•  Appendages

•  Standard directional terms •  Are used by professionals to describe location

of one body part in relation to another


Figure 1.3a Anatomical position and regional terms.

Cephalic (head) Frontal

Axial region

Cervical (neck)

Thoracic

Abdominal

Pelvic

Pubic (genital)

Anterior/Ventral

Pedal (foot)

Lower limb

Upper limb

Orbital Nasal Oral Mental

Sternal Axillary Mammary

Umbilical

Inguinal (groin)

Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum)

Acromial Brachial (arm) Antecubital Antebrachial (forearm) Carpal (wrist)

Pollex Palmar Digital

Coxal (hip) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) Fibular or peroneal

Tarsal (ankle) Metatarsal Digital Hallux

Manus (hand)


Figure 1.3b Anatomical position and regional terms. Appendicular

region

Posterior/Dorsal

Pedal (foot)

Lower limb

Manus (hand)

Upper limb

Cephalic

Cervical

Back (dorsal)

Acromial Brachial (arm) Olecranal Antebrachial (forearm)

Metacarpal Digital

Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular or peroneal

Calcaneal Plantar

Otic Occipital (back of head)

Scapular

Vertebral

Lumbar

Sacral

Gluteal

Perineal (between anus and external genitalia)

Thorax Abdomen Back (Dorsum)


Regional and Directional Terms

•  Directional terms are used to explain precise location of body structure in relation to another body structure

•  Terms are paired with opposite •  Superior/inferior

•  Anterior/posterior • Medial/lateral

•  Superficial/deep


Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 2)

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Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (2 of 2)


Body Planes and Sections

•  Frontal (coronal) plane •  Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and

posterior parts

•  Transverse plane •  Runs horizontally and divides body into superior

and inferior parts


Body Planes and Sections

•  Sagittal planes •  Are vertical

•  Divide the body into right and left parts • Median (midsagittal) plane

•  Sagittal plane that runs along the midline

•  Parasagittal planes •  A sagittal plane offset from the midline


Figure 1.4 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

Frontal plane

Left and right lungs

Frontal section (through torso)

Median section (midsagittal)

Median (midsagittal) plane

Transverse plane

Transverse section (through torso, inferior view)

Liver

Heart

Stomach

Arm

Rectum Intestines Vertebral column

Liver

Subcutaneous fat layer

Spinal cord Aorta Body wall

Pancreas

Spleen


The Human Body Plan

•  Tube-within-a-tube

•  Bilateral symmetry

•  Dorsal hollow nerve cord

•  Notochord and vertebrae

•  Segmentation

•  Pharyngeal pouches


Figure 1.5a Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.

Generalized vertebrate

Brain

Spinal cord

Notochord Muscle segments (myotomes)

Pharyngeal pouches Heart Digestive tube

Inner tube Dorsal hollow nerve tube Segmented outer tube Notochord

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Figure 1.5b Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.


Human embryo; 5 weeks postconception

Pharyngeal pouches

Lung bud

Spinal cord

Notochord

Muscle segments (myotomes)

Digestive tube Heart Brain


Figure 1.5c Basic human body plan, indicated by structures shared among all vertebrates.


Adult human

Heart

Muscle segments (muscles between ribs)

Digestive tube

Brain

Pharynx

Spinal cord

Vertebrae

Disc between vertebrae


Body Cavities and Membranes

•  Dorsal body cavity

•  Cranial cavity

•  Vertebral cavity



•  Ventral body cavity

•  Thoracic cavity—divided into three parts

•  Two lateral parts, each containing a lung surrounded by a pleural cavity

• Mediastinum—contains the heart surrounded by the pericardial sac



•  Ventral body cavity—continued

•  Abdominopelvic cavity—divided into two parts • Abdominal cavity—contains the liver,

stomach, kidneys, and other organs •  Pelvic cavity—contains the bladder, some

reproductive organs, and rectum


Figure 1.6a Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions. Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity

Lateral view

Diaphragm

Cranial cavity (contains brain)

Dorsal body cavity

Vertebral cavity (contains spinal cord)

Thoracic cavity (contains heart and lungs)

Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera)

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Figure 1.6b Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions. Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity

Diaphragm

Anterior view

Pericardial cavity within the mediastinum

Pleural cavity

Superior mediastinum Thoracic

cavity (contains heart and lungs)

Pelvic cavity (contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

Abdominal cavity (contains digestive viscera)

Ventral body cavity (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities)

Abdomino- pelvic cavity

Cranial cavity

Vertebral cavity



•  Serous cavities—a slitlike space lined by a serous membrane •  Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum

•  Parietal serosa •  Outer wall of the cavity

•  Visceral serosa •  Covers the visceral organs



•  Serous fluid •  Produced by both layers of the serous

membranes


Figure 1.7a The serous cavities and their associated membranes.

Lung

Serosae associated with the lungs: pleura

Ribs

Parietal pleura

Pleural cavity with serous fluid

Visceral pleura

Diaphragm


Figure 1.7b The serous cavities and their associated membranes.

Serosae associated with the heart: pericardium

Heart

Parietal pericardium

Pericardial cavity with serous fluid Visceral pericardium


Figure 1.7c The serous cavities and their associated membranes.

Serosae associated with the abdominal viscera: peritoneum

Liver

Parietal peritoneum

Visceral peritoneum

Peritoneal cavity (with serous fluid) Stomach

Kidney (retroperitoneal)

Wall of body trunk

Anterior

Posterior

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Figure 1.7d The serous cavities and their associated membranes.

Model of the serous membranes and serous cavity

Outer balloon wall (comparable to parietal serosa Air (comparable to serous cavity)

Inner balloon wall (comparable to visceral serosa)


Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

•  Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine regions

•  Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into four quadrants •  Right upper and left upper quadrants

•  Right lower and left lower quadrants


9 Abdominal Regions

Figure 1.8a, b

Epigastric region

Umbilical region

Right lumbar region

Left lumbar region

Right hypochondriac

region

Left hypochondriac

region

Hypogastric (pubic) region

Right iliac (inguinal)

region

Left iliac (inguinal)

region

(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes

Liver

Gallbladder

Ascending colon of large intestine Small intestine

Appendix

Cecum

Diaphragm

Stomach

Descending colon of large intestine

Transverse colon of large intestine

Initial part of sigmoid colon Urinary bladder

(b) Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs

Spleen


Right upper quadrant (RUQ)

Right lower quadrant (RLQ)

Left upper quadrant (LUQ)

Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

(c) The four abdominopelvic quadrants

4 Abdominal Quadrants

Figure 1.8c


Microscopic Anatomy

•  Microscopy—examining small structures through a microscope •  Light microscopy illuminates tissue with a beam

of light (lower magnification)

•  Electron microscopy uses beams of electrons (higher magnification)


(a) Light micrograph (330×)

(b) Transmission electron micrograph, artificially colored (870×)

Cytoplasm

Extracellular material

Cell nuclei

(c) Scanning electron micrograph, artificially colored (2900×)

Microscopic Anatomy

Figure 1.9a–c

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Microscopic Anatomy

•  Preparing human tissue for microscopy

•  Specimen is fixed (preserved) and sectioned

•  Specimen is stained to distinguish anatomical structures

• Acidic stain—negatively charged dye molecules

• Basic stain—positively charged dye molecules


Microscopic Anatomy

•  Scanning electron microscopy

•  Heavy metal salt stain—deflects electrons in the beam to different extents

•  Artifacts

•  Minor distortions of preserved tissues

•  Not exactly like living tissues and organs


Clinical Anatomy—An Introduction to Medical Imaging Techniques

•  X ray—electromagnetic waves of very short length

•  Best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense structures


Figure 1.10 X-ray images.

Radiograph of the chest

Clavicles (collarbones)

Lower GI with barium contrast medium, normal

Ribs

Air in lungs (black)

Heart

Diaphragm


Advanced X-Ray Techniques

•  Computed (axial) tomography (CT or CAT) •  Takes successive X rays around a

person’s full circumference

•  Computer translates recorded information into a detailed picture of the body section


Figure 1.11 Computed tomography (CT).

Right

View

Left

Liver Stomach Colon

Inferior vena cava Aorta Spleen

Left kidney Thoracic vertebra

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Figure 1.12 Digital subtraction angiography (DSA).

Narrowing of artery

Artery supplying heart



•  Positron emission tomography (PET)—forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body

•  Sonography (ultrasound imaging)—body is probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off the body’s tissues

•  Imaging technique used to determine the age of a developing fetus


Figure 1.13 Positron Emission Tomography (PET).

Brain

PET scan before treatment. Tumors visible in right breast and in liver

PET scan after treatment

Heart

Liver Kidney

Colon

Urinary bladder


Figure 1.14 Ultrasound image of a fetus in the uterus.

Head Body



•  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)—produces high-quality images of soft tissues

•  Distinguishes body tissues based on relative water content


Figure 1.15 Magnetic resonance image (MRI).

MRI of knee, sagittal section. Arrow indicates meniscus. Note tear in meniscus in bottom image.

Injured knee, torn meniscus Volume rendering of an MRI of the head

Normal knee, meniscus intact

Documents

ch 01 lecture 7thA - Mission Collegestreaming.missioncollege.org/dlamkin/media/BIOSC_047...PowerPoint ® Lecture Presentations prepared by Leslie Hendon University of Alabama, Birmingham