Ch. 1 – Studying Gender: An Overview

Robert Wonser

Sex and Gender

• Not the same thing!

• Sex (i.e. maleness or femaleness) is a biological given, physical distinctions used as the basis for constructing a social category called,

• Gender (i.e. masculinity or femininity) – a social construct, expected behavior because one is male or female

Gender Stereotypes

• Stereotypes are oversimplified summary description of a group of people

• Gender Stereotypes are simplistic descriptions of supposedly ‘masculine male’ or ‘feminine female’

• Most people view them as bipolar, either/or. That is, a masculine male lacks any feminine traits and a feminine female lacks any masculine traits

• Does this apply to you? Is this realistic?

Gender System

• Sex/gender system• The institutionalized patterns of

sex/gender differentiation• These prescriptions are embedded in the

institutions of society—in the economy, political system, educational system, religions, family forms and so on

• The consequences of this system are the focus of this class

• Sex/gender systems vary historically and cross-culturally on these three interrelated components:1) the social construction of gender categories on the basis of biological sex;2) a sexual division of labor in which specific tasks are allocated on the basis of sex;3) the social regulation of sexuality, in which particular forms of sexual expression are positively or negatively sanctioned

Social Stratification

• Men and women and the traits associated with are unequally valued in a society.

• We live in a patriarchal society.• Patriarchy is a sex/gender system in which men

dominate women, and what is considered masculine is more highly valued than what is considered feminine.

• Not universal and does not benefit all groups of men equally, just as it disadvantages some women more than others

Sociological Perspectives on Gender

• Sociology – the scientific study of human societies and cultures and of social behavior.

• Not all sociologists view issues the same way and gender is no exception

• Scientists, including sociologists, conduct their research within the framework of a particular paradigm

• A paradigm is a school of thought that guides the scientist in the choosing the problems to be studied, in selecting the methods for studying them, and in explaining what is found

• sociology is a multi-paradigm science

Sociological Perspectives on Gender

• Structural Functionalism was dominant in sociology and the study of gender from the 1940s – 1960s

• Structural functionalist paradigm depicts society as a stable, orderly system in which the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioral expectations that may be referred to collectively as societal consensus.

• The social system itself is composed of interrelated parts that operate together to keep the society balanced, in equilibrium.

• Each element in society functions to maintain social order• Change comes about very slowly, in an evolutionary way.• Rapid change - dysfunction

Functionalists

• Men and women are physically different– Men – bigger and stronger– Women – bear and nurse children

• These biological differences lead to gender roles

• Gender roles – not unlike a theatrical role, includes a set of behavioral requirements expected of the person occupying the role because of their sex

• The work women do in the home is functional; it serves a purpose for society

• Women reproduce society– Giving birth to new members– Teaching/socializing them to accept the

culture’s agreed upon values and norms– Providing men and children with affection and

physical sustenance

• Some functionalists devalue traditional women’s work; referred to as a “duty” and designating men as instrumental leaders in their families

Evaluating Functionalism

• Major Theme: gender differences as natural phenomena deriving from human biology

• The problem is that this confuses sex and gender and suggests immutability

• Gender is in fact variable; it changes throughout time and culture

• Gender is a social creation, a reification, not a biological given

Evaluating Functionalism

• Another consequence of depicting gender differences as natural is that this has often been used to justify inequality and discrimination on the basis of sex.

• Even if biology is responsible for many of the personality and behavior differences between men and women, but that does not mean one sex or gender is better than the other or that members of one sex deserve a disproportionate share of society’s resources

Evaluating Functionalism• Major theme: the conception of gender in terms of roles

– “The notion of “role” focuses more attention on individuals than on social structure, and implies that “the female role” and “the male role” are complementary (i.e. separate or different, but equal). The terms are depoliticizing; they strip experience from its historical and political context and neglect questions of power and conflict. It is significant that sociologists do not speak of “class roles” or “race roles.”” Stacy and Thorne (1985; 307)

• Power is the ability to impose one’s will upon others despite resistance.

• How does the notion of power relate to social change?• It implies that the solution to gender inequality is simply

teaching people new roles when in fact far reaching and effective social change requires a fundamental restructuring of society’s basic resources.

• A major weakness: is its defense of the status quo

A Paradigm Revolution

• When paradigms can no longer explain social conditions or problems without being revised in some fundamental way a paradigm revolution is likely.

• One paradigm is better suited than another for explaining current conditions

• Functionalism was eclipsed by another paradigm, feminist paradigm.

A Feminist Sociology of Gender

• There is no one feminism but rather a “plurality of feminisms”

• The feminist paradigm acknowledges the importance of both nature and learning in the acquisition of gender. It is impossible to separate the precise influence of biology as the learning process begins immediately after birth. Genes code for a specific range of forms that take shape under various environmental conditions.

• Basic assumption: gender is essentially socially created, rather than innately determined.

• It is learned behavior through the process of social learning with what we actually learn being a social product that is generated within the context of a particular political and economic structure.

Sexism

• Sexism is the differential valuing of one sex, usually men, over the other.

• Sexism is sociology• 1) most sociological studies were conducted by men,

using male subjects, although the findings were generalized to all people.

• 2) Gender was considered an important category of analysis only in a limited number of sociological subfields, such as marriage and family, whereas in all others, it was ignored

• 3) When women were studied, their behavior and attitudes were analyzed in terms of a male standard of normalcy or rightness.

• “Most of what we have known as the study of society was the study of male society.”

• Gender is a fundamental consideration for feminists; it influences social relations

• Goal is to create a holistic view of how women and men because of different locations within the social structure, encounter different opportunities and constraints.

• Social arrangements lead to different experiences and life chances for men and women

• Feminist- reject the traditional model of science “As establishing mastery over subjects, and demanding the absence f feeling, and as enforcing separateness of the knower from the known, all under the guise of ‘objectivity.’”

• Instead they adopt an empathetic stance toward their research subjects.

Feminism and Social Movements

• Does feminism only apply to “women’s issues”?• Traditional focus has been on women’s issues – why?• Does not ignore masculinities although virtually all men benefit from the institutionalized patriarchal privilege not

all men actually have power in our society.• The consequences of feminism are also not the same for everyone. Who benefits and

how?• Feminist sociologists are advocates of social change seek to develop effective

means to eradicate gender inequality and to change those aspects of our social constructions of gender that are harmful or destructive.

• How to affect change? create a group consciousness people must begin to see that their problems are not personal ones, but rather are shared by others like them.

• Group consciousness collective action• Social movement – a group that has organized to promote a particular cause

through collective action• The collective work of feminists and feminist research has spurred many to work for

social change, these collective efforts known as the feminist movement or the women’s movement

Feminism in Historical Perspective

• The First Wave (1830-1920)• Early Feminists included: Elizabeth Blackwell, Charlotte Perkins

Gilman, Margaret Sanger, Maria W. Stewart, Sojourner Truth, Frances Willard, and Victoria Clafflin Woodhull

• Feminism was mostly associated with the suffragists in the context of the 19th century because of the struggle for the right to vote for women.

• But, early feminism, like contemporary feminism, was far more diverse than has been depicted in traditional historical accounts.

• Early resistance to gender inequality can be traced back to the Middle Ages, but since women’s accounts were not included in official history most didn’t know others felt the same way and thus a movement was inhibited.

• Seneca Falls convention in New York in 1848.

The 2nd Wave• 1963 Betty Friedan’s book The Feminine Mystique voiced the unhappiness and

boredom of White, middle-class, educated housewives. – Suburban homes – “comfortable concentration camps” stunted personal growth– After subordinating their own needs to those of their children and husbands they were left

profoundly empty rather than fulfilled “The problem that has no name”– This book illustrated that it is not a personal problem but a social problem

• Sexual politics – the examination of gender inequality as rooted not only in the public sphere, but also “in the ‘privacy’ of our kitchens and bedrooms,” in the intimate relationships between women and men.

• 1966 – National Organization for Women (NOW)– Founded by Betty Friedan and 27 others who were representing state women’s

commissions at a national assembly in Washington.• Also more radical women’s groups were emerging at this time• Origins in the political left and centered on college campuses.• Struck by the glaring contradiction between radical men in the movement and the

professed equality but sexist treatment towards women within the movement.• This movement also crystallized lesbian movements while simultaneously causing a

rift in the feminist movement because of the lesbian focus critical of heterosexual relations.

• Again, the 2nd wave was far from homogenous

Men and Liberation• Traditional masculinity is harmful to men also.

– Ex: higher rates of heart disease are linked with traditional notions of masculinity. • The social category “man” is as diverse as “woman” is.• Although all men benefit to some degree from the “patriarchal dividend” the distribution of

societal resources varies among men according to their race and ethnicity, social class, age, physical ability, and sexual orientation.

• “Men’s liberation” has divided into two camps:• Male-identified and female-identified• Male-identified branch of the men’s rights movement is composed of men’s rights groups

who view male privilege as an illusion and it is women who ultimately are privileged. Men are victims of women’s abuse; men are seduced by women then falsely accused of rape, men are routinely denied custody of their children following a divorce. Men are expected to be providers and protectors while women are exempted from military draft and do not have to pay for drinks or meals when on dates.

• This branch is clearly anti-feminist• The female-identified branch of the men’s movement is explicitly pro-feminist

– Argue that traditional masculinity is harmful, especially for working-class men and men of color.

– Sexism is a system of male domination it’s not enough to give women what men have.

– Instead it’s necessary to reconstruct gender and gender relations in our society.• To do this, men must engage in antisexist behavior.

Contemporary Feminisms

• According to Judith Lorber, 3 types: gender-reform, gender-resistance and gender-rebellion

• gender-reform feminisms emphasize the similarities rather than the differences between women and men.– Goal: women to have the same opportunities as men to fully

participate in all aspects of social life, reflecting personal choices, not society’s sexist dictates.

– Liberal – same legal rights as men enjoy for women– Marxist – women’s oppression is caused by economic

dependence– Socialist – and increasing employment opportunities for women– Development – focuses on women in economically developing

countries, improving women’s educational and economic opportunities, operating within constraints of traditional cultures.

Contemporary Feminisms • Gender-resistance Feminisms argue that formal legal rights alone

cannot end gender inequality because male dominance is too ingrained into everyday social relations including heterosexual sexual relations.

• Encourage women to form women only organizations and communities

• ‘resistant’ because separateness resists the gendered social order but does nothing to change it.

• Includes:– Radical and lesbian feminisms which focus on the sexual exploitation of

women by men (esp. men’s violence against women)– Psychoanalytic feminism uses the ideas of Sigmund Freud to explain

gender inequality in terms of the sex differences in personality development

– Standpoint feminism attempts to examine all aspects of life from a woman’s unique standpoint.

Contemporary Feminism

• Gender-rebellion feminism (also called third wave because of their departure from traditional feminism) that focus on the interrelationships among the inequalities of gender, race and ethnicity, social class and sexual orientation, and analyze gender inequality as one piece of a complex system of social stratification.

• Includes:– Multiracial feminism and Men’s feminism both highlight how one’s

various social locations within the stratification hierarchy privilege or disadvantage groups of women or men in different ways.

– Social construction feminism examines the ways people construct identities and labels through their everyday interactions with one another.

– Postmodern feminism and Queer theory conceptualize sex and gender as social scripts and then rewrite the parts and alter the props as they see fit for specific situations; gender is fluid.

The Future of Feminism: Young Women and Women of Color

• Media reports indicate feminism is dead, why?

• Feminist and feminism have become dirty words, why?

• Although young women today believe that women’s plights have improved over the last 25 years they are reluctant to label themselves feminists, why?

The Perspective of this Text

• Feminist

• Also important: Symbolic Interactionist perspective and the ‘doing gender’ take