Ch 1 The Nature of Science

Steps to the Scientific Method:

1. State the Problem2. Research3. Form an Hypothesis 4. Experiment5. Analyze and Record Data6. Make a Conclusion7. Repeat

Step 1…State the Problem This is the question you want

answered Before you can continue with the

scientific steps you have to know what the problem is

Step 2…Research Gather information about your

problem You can find information on the

internet,in an encyclopedia, or maybe even in your science book

Step 3…Form an Hypothesis

Educated guess about what you think the answer to your problem is

You make an hypothesis based on observation, research, or prior knowledge

Step 4…Experiment Step by Step procedure Remember controls and variables You have to experiment to test

your hypothesis

Step 5…Analyze and Record Data

Write down info from experiment Figure out what info means… Use tables,charts,and graphs

Step 6…Make a Conclusion

State final answer from the results of your experiment

State whether your hypothesis was correct or incorrect

Step 7…Repeat Experiment is conducted again to

see if you get the same results

Variables A variable is what

we are trying to test…it is usually the “thing” that is different from one experiment to another.

A variable could be: a independent or dependent variable. An example of a independent variable is: water(the experiment we talked about in class, about the plants) An example of a dependent variable is: growth and appearance. (still referring to the plant experiment.)

Controls A control is all

the “things” that are the same in both experiments.

An example of a control is: (the experiment we talked about in class about the plants.) None of the plants sunlight amount changes, the soil stays the same, and the containers are the same.

Experimental Group The experimental group is the group that

has the variable in it. The experimental group is the group that

has the thing that is different in it.

Control Group The control group is the group that does

not have the variable in it, it has the controls in it.

The control group has all of the things that stay the same in it.

Experimental Design All experiments should: Test your hypothesis Include very detailed steps (tell how much, what

kind, and directions) Include variables and controls (experimental

group and control group) Have results checked along the way Communicate results in a graph or chart Test only 1 variable at a time

Ch 2 MineralsDifferent kinds of minerals.

Mineral Definitions1. Crystalline:

2. Magma: hot melted rock material beneath Earth’s surface.

3. Hardness: measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched.

4. Luster: describes the way a mineral reflects light from its surface; can be metallic or nonmetallic.

5. Streak: color of a mineral when it is in powdered form.

6. Gems: beautiful, rare, highly prized mineral that can be worn in jewelry.

What Are 4 Characteristics All Minerals Share:

1. Naturally Occurring 2. Inorganic Solid 3. Element or Compound with a Definite

Chemical Composition 4. Orderly Arrangement of Atoms

Moh’s Scale Moh’s Scale of

Hardness is a scale that has 10 common minerals on it, comparing them to each other to see how hard each mineral is.

Rock Cycle A rock is different from a mineral because

a rock is made up of minerals. The rock cycle illustrates the processes that

create and change rocks.

Igneous RocksDefine: Magma:hot, melted rock material beneath Earth’s surface. Lava:molten rock that flows from volcanoes onto Earth’s

surface.

Intrusive:describes a type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface.

Extrusive:describes fine-grained igneous rock that forms when magma cools quickly at or near Earth’s surface.

Igneous rock:rock formed when magma or lava cools or hardens.

Formation of Igneous Rock Where does “magma” come from? Most magmas come from deep below Earth’s

surface. Magma is located at depths ranging from near the surface to about 150km below the surface.

Formation of Igneous Rock Where does the “heat” that melts rock

come from? The heat that melts the rock comes from sources

within Earth’s interior. One source is the decay of radioactive elements within Earth. Some heat is left over from the formation of the planet, which originally was molten. Radioactive decay of elements contained in rocks balances some heat loss as Earth continues to cool.

Metamorphic Rocks Define:1. Foliated: when mineral grains line up in

parallel layers.

2. Non-foliated: the mineral grains grow and rearrange, but they don’t form layers.

3. Metamorphic rocks: rock that have changed because of changes in temperature and pressure or the presence of hot, watery fluids.

Formation of Metamorphic Rock What causes rocks to be so hot? Rocks beneath Earth’s surface are under great

pressure from rock layers above them. Temperature also increases with depth in Earth.

Why does pressure increase with depth in Earth?

The pressure increases because of the rock layers above.

Formation of Sedimentary Rock What causes sedimentary rocks to form in

layers? A sedimentary rock forms when sediments are pressed and

cemented together, or when minerals form from solutions. The sediments get packed together forming layers.

Explain how loose sediment can eventually become sedimentary rock:

Loose sediment can eventually become sedimentary rock because the wind, water, ice, or gravity carries the sediment to a different place, and they get packed and cemented together forming sedimentary rocks.

Sedimentary Rock Define:

1. Sediment: loose materials such as rock fragments, mineral grains, and bits of shell that have been moved by wind, water, ice, or gravity.

2. Cementation: occurs when minerals such as quartz, calcite, and hematite are deposited between the pieces of sediment.

3. Compaction: pressure from the upper layers pushes down on the lower layers. If the sediments are small, they can stick together and form solid rock.

4. Weathering: when rock is exposed to air, water, or ice, it is unstable and breaks down chemically and mechanically.

5. Erosion: when sediment is moved to a new location and then are deposited.

6. Sedimentary rock: forms when sediments are pressed and cemented together, or when minerals form from solutions.

Ch 4 Atmosphere The five layers of the atmosphere are:

1. Troposphere

2. Stratosphere

3. Mesosphere

4. Thermosphere

5. Exosphere

Ozone Layer What is the ozone layer? The ozone layer is a

layer of oxygen. It contains 3 oxygen molecules. It protects the Earth’s surface.

In what layer is the ozone found? The ozone is found in the Stratosphere.

Why is the ozone layer important? The ozone layer is important because it protects the Earth’s surface from the Sun’s harmful rays.

Troposphere 2 facts about this layer are:

1. This is the layer we live in.

2. This layer is where weather occurs.

Stratosphere 2 facts about this layer are: 1. This layer contain the ozone layer.

2. This layer is the second layer.

Mesosphere 2 facts about this layer are:

1. This layer is the third layer.

2. This layer is where meteors burn up.

Thermosphere 2 facts about this layer are:

1. This layer is where space shuttles orbit.

2. This is the fourth layer.

Exosphere 2 facts about this layer are:

1. This layer is where satellites are.

2. This is the outer most layer.

Why is Earth’s Atmosphere Unique?

Earth’s atmosphere is unique because radiation from the Sun can be reflected into space, absorbed by the atmosphere, or absorbed by land and water. Once it is absorbed, heat can be transferred by radiation, conduction, or convection. Earth’s atmosphere helps control how mush of the Sun’s radiation is absorbed or lost.

What causes wind? Wind is caused by the uneven heating of

Earth’s surface by the Sun causes some areas to be warmer than others. Recall that warmer air expands, becoming lower in density than the colder air. This causes air pressure to be generally lower where air is heated, causing wind.

Why do areas of Earth receive different amounts of radiation?

Areas of Earth receive different amounts of radiation because Earth is curved.

Local Wind Systems Describe the difference between Sea and

Land Breezes: A sea breeze is created during the day

because solar radiation warms the land more than the water.

A land breeze is movement of air toward the water from the land, and is created during the night.

Definitions CFC’s- group of chemical compounds used in refrigerators, air

conditioners, foam packaging, and aerosol sprays that may enter the atmosphere and destroy ozone.

Water cycle- continuous cycle of water molecules on Earth as they rise into the atmosphere, fall back to Earth as rain or other precipitation, and flow into rivers and oceans through the processes of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.

Jet streams- narrow belt of strong winds that blows near the top of the troposphere.

Coriolis effect- causes moving air and water to turn left in the southern hemisphere and turn right in the northern hemisphere due to Earth’s rotation.

Condensation- change of matter from a gas to a liquid state. Evaporation- change of matter from a liquid to a gas state.

Weather Weather- state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place,

determined by factors including air pressure, amount of moisture in the air, temperature, wind, and precipitation.

Humidity- amount of water vapor held in the air. Fog- a stratus cloud that forms when air is cooled to its dew point near

the ground. Precipitation- water falling from clouds-including rain, snow, sleet,

and hail-whose form is determined by air temperature. Front- boundary between two air masses with different temperatures,

density, or moisture; can be cold, war, occluded, and stationary. Air mass- large body of air that has the same characteristics of

temperature and moisture content as the part of Earth’s surface over which it formed.

Climate Tropics- climate zone that receives the most solar radiation, is located between

latitudes 23°N and 23°S, and is always hot, except at high elevations. Climate- average weather pattern in an are over a long period of time; can be

classified by temperature, humidity, precipitation, and vegetation. Polar zones- climate zones that receive solar radiation at a low angle, extend from

66°N and S latitude to the poles, and are never warm.

Temperate zones- climate zones with moderate temperatures that are located between the tropics and the polar zones.

Adaptation- any structural or behavioral change that helps an organism survive in its particular environment.

Hibernation- behavioral adaptation for winter survival in which an animal’s activity is greatly reduced, its body temperature drops, and body processes slow down.

Estivation- behavioral adaptation for summer survival in which an animal enters an inactive state.

Greenhouse effect- heat-trapping feature of the atmosphere that occurs when certain gases in Earth’s atmosphere, such as methane, CO2, and water vapor, trap heat.

What is global warming? Global warming is the increase in the

average global temperature of Earth.

What are 3 structural adaptations an organism may have to help them

survive? Three structural adaptations an organism

may have to help them survive are:1. The fur of mammals is really hair that insulates

them.

2. A cactus has a thick, fleshy stem. This structural adaptation helps a cactus hold water.

3. A cactus has spiny leaves, called needles, that further reduce water loss.

Why do the tropics receive the most solar radiation?

The tropics receive the most solar radiation because they are closest to the equator.

Name 3 factors that can affect local and regional climates.

Three factors that can affect local and regional climates are:

1. Large bodies of water

2. Mountains

3. Cities

Name 1 negative effect of deforestation?

One negative effect of deforestation is it affects the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Ch7 Section 1: Earth’s Motion and Seasons.

1. Axis- imaginary line around which Earth spins; drawn from the north geographic pole through Earth to the south geographic pole.

2. Orbit- curved path followed by Earth as it moves around the Sun.

3. Rotation- the spinning of Earth on its axis.

1. Revolution- the motion of Earth around the Sun.

2. Equinox- twice-yearly time when the Sun is directly above Earth’s equator and there are equal hours of day and night.

3. Solstice- time when the Sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the equator.

Summer and Winter The reason it is so much

warmer in the summer than in the winter is because during the summer the northern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun, while in the winter the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun.

Section 1: Earth’s Motion and Seasons

A solstice is a time when the Sun reaches its greatest distance north or south of the equator.

An equinox is a twice-yearly time when the Sun is directly above Earth’s equator and there are equal hours of day and night.

Section 2: Earth’s Moon1. Crater- depressions formed by large meteorites-space

objects that strike the Earth.

2. Moon phase- the changing views of the moon as seen from Earth.

3. Solar eclipse- when Earth moves into the Moon’s shadow, during a new moon.

4. Lunar eclipse- occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are lined up so that the full moon moves into Earth’s shadow.

Revolution and Rotation of the Moon

The reason the same side of the moon always faces Earth is because it takes 27.3 days for the Moon to complete one orbit around Earth, and it also takes 27.3 days for the moon to rotate once on its axis.

Moon Phases Waxing means the

moon is growing in size.

Waning means the moon is decreasing in size.

Eclipses A solar eclipse occurs

when Earth moves into the Moon’s shadow, during a new moon.

A lunar eclipse occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are lined up so that the full moon moves into Earth’s shadow.

Our Solar System1. Asteroid- small, rocky objects that mostly lie in a belt

located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

2. Comet- space object made of rocky particles and ice that forms a tail when orbiting near the Sun.

3. Nebula- cloud of material.

4. Astronomical unit- unit used to measure distances in the solar system; 1 AU equals 150,000,000 km.

Astronomical unit Astronomer do not use kilometers to

measure distances in the solar system because the distances in the solar system are to long.

Inner Planets The inner planets are Mercury, Venus,

Earth, and Mars. These planets are called the inner planets

because they are similar in size and their orbits lie inside the asteroid belt.

Outer Planets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Origin of the Solar System One hypothesis about how the solar system

was formed is that the Sun and all the planets and other objects condensed from a large cloud of gas, ice, and dust about 5 billion years ago. That cloud is called a nebula.

Ch 24 Energy and Energy Resources

What is Energy Energy is the ability

to cause change.

Energy Transformations PE(before the yo-yo goes

down)KE (when the yo-yo falls) PE(when the yo-yo stops at bottom)KE(yo-yo goes up)PE(yo-yo get back to top) Also, there is more energy when the string is tugged.

Kinetic Energy Kinetic energy is the

energy of motion.

Potential Energy Potential energy is the

energy of position.

More Potential Energy If one of the vases

had more mass it could have more potential energy.

Thermal Energy Thermal energy is the

energy of hot objects.

Chemical Energy Chemical energy is

the energy stored in chemical bonds.

Light Energy Radiant energy is

energy carried by light.

Electrical Energy Electrical energy is

energy carried by electric current.

Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy is

energy contained in atomic nuclei. It is energy produced from the splitting apart of billions of uranium nuclei by a nuclear fission reaction.

Energy in a Roller Coaster Most KE: Going

down a hill. Most PE: At the top

of a hill. Least PE: Going

down a hill. Least KE: At the top

of a hill or in a loop.Point B: Maximum PE and least KE

Point C: Maximum KE and least PE

Thermal Energy Thermal energy moves from something at

a higher temperature to something at lower temperature.

Sources of Energy A renewable resource

is an energy resource that is replenished continually.

A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that is used more quickly than it can be replaced by natural processes.

Sources of Energy

A renewable resource is an energy resource that is replenished continually.

A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that is used more quickly than it can be replaced by natural processes.

Coal is nonrenewable

Water is renewable

Alternative Energy Resources(Section 3)

Resource Advantage Disadvantage

1.Fossil Fuels

2.Nuclear Energy

3.Hydroelectricity

4.Solar Energy

5.Geothermal Energy

6.Energy from Oceans

7.Wind