Chap 6 Industrial Chemistry

8/8/2019 Chap 6 Industrial Chemistry

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FOUNDATION INFOUNDATION IN SCIENCESCIENCEFOUNDATION INFOUNDATION IN SCIENCESCIENCE

NIRWANA ACADEMY GROUP OF COLLEGESNIRWANA ACADEMY GROUP OF COLLEGES

CHEMISTRY ACHEMISTRY A

CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TOINTRODUCTION TO

CHEMICAL SOCIETYCHEMICAL SOCIETY

CHAPTER 6CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TOINTRODUCTION TO

CHEMICAL SOCIETYCHEMICAL SOCIETY


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CHM 1001 CHEMSTRY ACHAPTER 6: Introduction to Chemistry in Society

LEARNING OUTCOMESLEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lessons, student would beable to

understand the basic principle of spectroscopy

identify the emission spectrum a particularelements

write a correct electronic configuration of an

element


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Industry uses chemical reactions to producechemicals for society

to replace naturally occurring chemicals

that are no longer available or are noteconomically viable

Some common production: Haber,

Ostwald and Contact process

INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRYINDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY


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is the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogenand hydrogen, over an iron substrate to

produce ammonia

it is important because ammonia is difficultto produce in industrial scale

Ammonia was first manufactured using this

process in Germany during WW I to meethigh demand for ammonium nitrate whichneeded for explosives

HABER PROCESSHABER PROCESS


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Firstly, about 45% of methane (CH4) isused to react with steam, the rest of themethane is reacted with air

CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)

2CH4(g) + O2(g) + 4N2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2(g) + 4N2(g)

the CO in the mixture is oxidised to CO2using steam and an iron oxide catalyst

CO(g) + H2

O(g) H2

(g) + CO2

(g)

CO2 is removed so that only N2 and H2remain and are used in the production ofammonia



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In ammonia production, the pure and dryH2 and N2 are mixed together in a ratio of

3:1 by volume and compressed to a

pressure around 200-500 atmThe reaction is exothermic, releasing

92.4kJ/mol of energy at 298K (25oC)

N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

H = -92.4 kJ mol-1



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In 1909, Fritz Haber established theconditions for the reaction of N2 and H2medium temperature (~400-500oC)

T causes the equilibrium shift to right resultinghigher yield

it means the system will adjust to minimize the effect

of the change, where it will produce more heat

However, the rate of reaction extremely slow, so a T must be used to speed up the reaction which

results in a lower yield of ammonia



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very high pressure (~250 atmospheres,~351kPa)

pressure causes the equilibrium shift to right

resulting in a higher yield

this would brings the molecules more closer andincreases the chance of hitting and sticking to the

surface of the catalyst

also means the system will adjusts to reduce the

effect of the change, that is, to respond by favoringthe reaction which produces fewer gas molecules



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a catalyst (a porous iron catalyst prepared byreducing magnetite, Fe3O4)

used to speed up the reaction by lowering the

activation energy so that the N2 bonds and H2

bonds can be more readily broken Has no effect on the position of the equilibrium and

do not produce any greater percentage of ammonia

Osmium is a much better catalyst for the reaction

but is very expensive



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Under these conditions, NH3 yieldsapproximately 10-20%

During production, the reaction never reaches

equilibrium as the gas mixture in the reactor iscooled to liquefy and remove the NH3

The remaining mixture of unreacted N2 and

H2 are pumped back and recycled through the

reactor

The heat released by the reaction is removed

and used to heat the incoming gas mixture



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Is mainly used in the manufacture of nitricacid

Also used to produce nitrogenous fertilizers

such asAmmonium sulphate

Neutralization of ammonia with sulphuric acid

Ammonium nitrate Neutralization of ammonia with nitric acid

Urea Ammonia reacts with CO2 at 200

oC and 200 atm

USES OF AMMONIAUSES OF AMMONIA


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In petroleum industry, ammonia was usedin neutralizing the acid constituents of

crude oil and for protection of equipment

from corrosionAlso used in the mining industry for

extraction of metals from their ores

widely used refrigerant in industrialrefrigeration systems



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used in several areas of water andwastewater treatment

Weak ammonia solutions are also widely

used as commercial and household cleanersand detergents

it reacts with HCl to produce ammonium

chloride which use as electrolyte in dry cell



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Once ammonia has been produced by theHaber process, it can be converted into

nitric acid through a multi-step procedure

known as the Ostwald processIn the first step in this reaction, ammonia

and oxygen gas catalytically react to form

nitrogen monoxide4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) H= -906 kJ mol

-1

OSTWALD PROCESSOSTWALD PROCESS


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In production, a platinum-rhodium metalgauze is used as catalyst and heated to

about 900oC. However, even a hot copper

wire can catalyze the reaction in thelaboratory

Once the reaction has started, the energy

produces is enough to keep the catalyst hot

enough to sustain the reaction



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Next, the NO reacts with oxygen toproduce NO2

No catalyst is required as it occurs in air atRT

2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)

NO2 is then converted to HNO3 byabsorbing NO2 in water, in the presence of

airThe nitric acid is separated by distillation,

and the NO can be recycled3NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)



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HNO3 can then be used in the manufactureof countless numbers of different nitrogen

containing compounds

Ammonia and nitric acid produced areused for the production of many

ammonium salts and nitrates, which act as

fertilizers, e.g., calcium ammonium nitrate

(CAN), one of the most important forms

of nitrogen fertilizers



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principle use is the production of fertilizers,explosives, flares, and rocket propellants In making explosives, HNO3 react with toluene

in the presence of sulphuric acid to form

trinitrotoluene (TNT); other explosives includenitro glycerine, gun cotton, ammonal (amixture of ammonium nitrate and aluminiumpowder) etc.

Fertilizers such as calcium nitrate, ammoniumnitrate etc

Nitrate salts such as calcium nitrate, silvernitrate, ammonium nitrate

USES OF NITRIC ACIDUSES OF NITRIC ACID


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Dyes, perfumes, drugs etc. from coal tarproducts

a powerful oxidizing agents when mix with

HCl acid which dissolves many metalsexcept gold or platinum

purification of silver, gold, platinum etc



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the current method of producing sulphuricacid in the ; a far more economical

process than the previous lead chamber

processcan be divided into three stages

Preparation and purification of SO2

Catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to SO3Conversion of SO3 to sulphuric acid

CONTACT PROCESSCONTACT PROCESS


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The first step involving the combustion ofsulfur (or metal sulfide ore e.g. PbS) to formsulphur dioxide

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)an excess of air is used so that the SO2

produced is already mixed with oxygen forthe next stage

Purification is necessary to avoid catalystpoisoning then cleaned by electrostaticprecipitation to remove any particulatematter



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In second step, the mixture is heated byexhaust gases from the catalytic converterby heat exchangers

2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) H = -197.78 kJ

To increase rate of reaction, SO2 is passedover vanadium pentoxide or platinumcatalyst, at 450C and 10 atm to ensure a98-99.5% conversion to sulfur trioxide

platinum would be a more suitablecatalyst, but it is very costly and easilypoisoned



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Any unreacted gases from the abovereaction are recycled back into the abovereaction

In final step, SO3

is dissolved in waterforming sulphuric acid

This process takes place in absorptiontowers

However the reaction is slow and the hotgaseous SO3 cannot directly added towater as the reaction is very exothermic



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would cause the acid to vaporize and forma dangerous mist

To avoid this problem, the SO3 is added to

a flowing solution of concentratedsulphuric acid (~98%; 18M) rather than to

pure water

Produces disulphuric acid or pyrosulphuricacid which is known as fuming sulphuric

acid or oleumH2SO4(l) + SO3(g) H2S2O7(l)



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Water was then added in small amounts,with stirring, to react with oleum to

produce concentrated sulfuric acid, H2SO4H

2S

2O

7(l) + H

2O(l) 2H

2SO

4(aq)

The average percentage yield of this

reaction is around 30%

To increase the percent yield of the

product, several conditions that need to be

concern



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In terms of proportions, the mixture of SO2and O2 going into the reactor is in equalproportions by volume

But according to Le Chatelier's Principle,increasing the concentration of oxygen inthe mixture causes the position ofequilibrium to shift towards the right

Since the oxygen comes from the air, this isa very cheap way of increasing theconversion of SO2 into SO3



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By increasing the proportion of oxygen,the percentage of the SO2 converted can be

increase, but at the same time decrease the

total amount of SO3 made each dayThe 1:1 mixture turns out to give you the

best possible overall yield of SO3

In terms of temperature, it need be lowersince the reaction involve exothermic



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in order to produce the maximum possibleamount of SO3, a T is needed so that it

will not force the equilibrium position to

shift to the left side of the equation thatfavoring the production of SO2

However the rate of reaction will decrease

at low temperature and the yield of SO3

is

lower if increase in temperature



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The temperature of 400 - 450C i s acompromise temperature producing a fairly

high proportion of SO3 in the equilibrium

mixtureIn terms of pressure, the yield of SO3 is

higher at high pressure

There are 3 molecules on the left-hand sideof the equation, but only 2 on the right



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increase in pressure will favor to the fewermolecules (favors to the right side of the

equation) resulting in a higher yield of SO3

At the same time it will also increase therate of reaction

The use of catalyst is also important in

order to increase the rate of reaction butno effect on the equilibrium position and

do not produce any greater percentage of

SO3 in the equilibrium mixture



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absence of a catalyst the reaction is so slowthat virtually no reaction happens in any

sensible time

It ensures that the reaction is fast enoughfor a dynamic equilibrium to be set up

within the very short time that the gases

are actually in the reactor



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Three main usage of sulphuric acid ininductryManufacture of ammonium sulphate,

(NH4)2SO4 fertilizer and phosphate fertilizer

Sulphuric acid removes ammonia from the mixtureof gases produced in a coke oven

2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Sulphuric acid treats phosphate rock forminginsoluble calcium phosphate, in, to mixtures that are

soluble in water and therefore available for plants

The mixtures are crushed and used assuperphosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2 fertilisers

USES OF SULPHURIC ACIDUSES OF SULPHURIC ACID


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dehydrating agent Sulpuric acid is used to dry the chlorine gas produced by

the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution

also used as a drying agent in the manufacture ofexplosives, dyes and detergents and it brings about

condensation reactions in the production of polymers,and esters

Concentrated sulphuric acid (18M) is used to dehydratewater, since it has a tendency to form hydrates such asH2SO4.H2O, H2SO4.2H2O, etc

Can suck water out of carbohydrates and some otherorganic compounds which contain oxygen andhydrogen. For example,

C12H22O11(s) + 11H2SO4 -----> 12C(s) + 11H2SO4.H2O



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Cleaning iron and steel To galvanise or electroplate iron or steel, any oxide

that has formed on its surface and any grease or dirt

must first be removed. This is done by treating with

acid such as sulphuric acidmanufacturing of paints/pigments,

soaps/detergents, fibres, plastics, fertilisers

As electrolyte used in lead-acid batteries(accumulators)



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used in the production of nitroglycerine, aninorganic ester & organic nitrate, which is

used as an explosive but can also be used

as a vasodilator (a substance that dilatesblood vessels and can be used in the

treatment of certain types of heart disease)



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Medicine: the art and science of healingIt encompasses a range of health care

practices evolved to maintain and restore

health by the prevention and treatment ofillness

Can be categorized into two

Traditional medicines

Modern medicines

MEDICAL CHEMISTRY


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Traditional medicines as the sum total of all knowledge and practices,

whether explicable or not, used in diagnosing,preventing, and eliminating physical, mental, or

societal imbalances involves theory, system, or practical experience

and observation where the knowledge of handeddown from generation to generation, whetherverbally or in writing

using herbal medication, or psychosocial therapies,cosmic and meta/para-psychic interactions, simplesurgical procedures, rituals, and symbolism

TRADITIONAL MEDICINES


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Modern medicines is a medical practice information resource for

time-starved medical professionals

It offers concise article summaries from over300 peer-reviewed journals, coding and

formulary tools, customizable patient

education materials, and is also a continuing

medical education(CME) resource.

MODERN MEDICINES


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Is a kind of drugs that usually kill thebacteria (bactericidal)

A class of antimicrobials, a larger group

which also includes anti-viral, anti-fungal,and anti-parasitic drugs

It also prevent the bacteria from

multiplying (bacteriostatic) so that thehost's immune system can overcome them;

slows or inhibit the growth of bacteria

ANTIBIOTICS


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Can only be used to treat bacterialinfections

Not effective against viral infections (forexample, the common cold), fungalinfections (such as ringworm) and othernonbacterial infections

each antibiotic is effective only for certain

types of infectionsThe most common examples of antibiotic

is penicillin and streptomycin

ANTIBIOTICS


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Penicillin isolated from the Penicillium chrysogenum (formerly

Penicillium notatum) mold

used to treat bacterial infections caused by

susceptible organisms Also used to cure diseases that caused by bacteria

infection such as gonorrhea, syphilis, anthrax,

pneumonia and meningitis

is safe to be used and only very few peoplessensitive to penicillin and experience certain side

effect after consumption

ANTIBIOTICS


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Streptomycin First class of drugs called aminoglycosides to be

discovered

first antibiotic remedy for dry cough, tuberculosis,

urinary infection, pneumonia and dysentery cannot be given orally, but must be administered by

regular intramuscular injection

Other example: Cephalosporins,

Macrolides, Fluoroquinolones,Sulfonamides, Tetracyclines

ANTIBIOTICS


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Complete the entire course even if you feelbetter before the course complete

It is important for healing because the

bacteria may be partially treated and notcompletely killed if stopped in midcourse

Will also cause the bacteria to be resistant

to the antibiotic which will lead reinfection

ANTIBIOTICS


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There are several side effect whenconsuming antibiotics:

Vomiting

Severe watery diarrhea and abdominal cramps

Allergic reaction (shortness of breath, hives,

swelling of your lips, face, or tongue, fainting)

Vaginal itching or discharge

White patches on your tongue

ANTIBIOTICS


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drug or medicine that consume to reduceor eliminate or relieve pain withoutcausing decreased consciousness

referred as painkiller medications

work by blocking pain signals to the brain,or how the brain interprets those signals

primary classes are the narcotics, including

additional agents that are chemically basedon the morphine molecule but haveminimal abuse potential

ANALGESICS


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come in different forms; pills, injected inmuscles or veins, sprays or gels, patches

classified as either narcotic or non-narcotic

Example of non-narcotic drug Tylenol (paracetamol or acetaminophen)

a popular analgesic and antipyretic (against fever)

used for the relief of fever, headaches, and other minoraches and pains

a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu medicationsand many analgesics prescription

Safe to be consume in proper dose

Example: Panadol

ANALGESICS


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Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) family of salicylates; a nonsteroidal anti-

inflammatory drug (NSAID)

often used as analgesic (against minor pains andaches), antipyretic (against fever), anti-inflammatory

(Such as arthritis) has also an anticoagulant (blood thinning) effect but

will increase bleeding in menstruating women

Can be used in long-term low-doses to prevent heart

attacks If stronger doses, the side effect would begastrointestinal distress (including ulcers and stomachbleeding) and tinnitus

ANALGESICS


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Example of narcotic drugCodeine

a weak narcotic drug

A pain-reliever and cough- though its efficacy has

been disputed

Also relieve diarrhea and mild-to-moderate pain

small amount of codeine is converted to morphine

in the body

stronger than aspirin and paracetamol in high dose

Continuous consumption of codeine will cause

addiction

ANALGESICS


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Hydrocodone Also a pain-reliever and an antitussive (cough

suppressant)

Can combined with acetaminophen to achieve pain

relief

depends on the type of pain and its

severity

should be used in consultation with doctor

ANALGESICS


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Vaccines stimulate our immune system toproduce antibodies without us having to

become infected with the actual disease

A dose of vaccine may contain: a suspending fluid to carry the vaccine into the

body

preservatives and stabilizers so the vaccine can

be stored safely

an adjuvant to improve the body's immune

response

VACCINE


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There are two types of immunity:Active immunity

generated by the body when the immune system is

triggered to produce antibodies against the disease

as though the body had been infected with it, eitherby the immunization or the disease

also teaches the body's immune system how to

produce the appropriate antibodies quickly

If the immunized person then comes into contactwith the disease itself, their immune system will

recognize it and immediately produce the antibodies

needed to fight it

VACCINE


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manufacture starts by generating the veryorganism that produces the disease, the

pathogen

Many bacteria, for example, can be grownon agar gel. Viruses are mass produced by

infecting cells grown in tissue culture

VACCINE


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Then the pathogen must be altered to makesure it doesn't trigger the disease itself. Thiscan be done by: weakening, or attenuating the pathogen by

growing it repeatedly to select a strain which

doesn't cause complications of the natural disease.The polio and MMR vaccines are attenuated

extracting the part of the pathogen that causes theimmune response and using this in the vaccine. TheHib vaccine is made in this way

killing the pathogen by heating it or by usingformalin. The whooping cough vaccine is made inthis way

VACCINE


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The treated pathogen can then becombined with the other components (the

adjuvant, stabilizers and preservatives) to

produce a dose of vaccine

Scientists are trying to find new ways of

producing vaccines, particularly using

biotechnology and genetic engineering

VACCINE


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required for normal function, growth, andmaintenance of body tissues

a deficiency will occur with a subsequentdecline in health if insufficient quantity of

any vitamin

into two classes fat-soluble

water-solubledetermine how it is absorbed and

transported by the bloodstream

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Fat soluble vitamin include as follows:Vitamin A

abundant in food supply; low risk of a deficiency

needed for regulation of the immune system, vision,

reproduction, bone growth, cell division, and cell

differentiation

Deficiency: night blindness and a decreased immune

system, resulting in a decrease in the ability to fight

infections occur from an inadequate diet, chronic diarrhea, and

an excess intake of alcohol

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Vitamin D supplied by our diet and sunlight

Exposure to ultraviolet (U V) rays can trigger theproduction of vitamin D in our body

amount of sun needed depend on skin color, age, the

time of the day, season, and geographic location needed for healthy bones by maintaining normal blood

levels of calcium and phosphorus and for maintenance ofa healthy immune system

Deficiency in children: rickets; adults: osteomalacia

(softening of the bones due to defective bonemineralization)

Deficiency occurs from inadequate diet, limited exposureto sunlight, and malabsorption

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Vitamin E It shown to have a wide array of health benefits,

including prevention of stroke, diabetes, cancer,

heart disease, arthritis, cataracts and improved

immune function

Deficiency of this may cause numerous health

problems however it is rare

Impairment in ability to absorb fat would put at risk

for a deficiency

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Vitamin K most well-known by those who take blood-thinning

medications

plays a crucial role in blood clotting and needs to be

monitored when taking these medications also needed for bone proteins

Some can be made in the intestines

However when people take antibiotics that kill the

beneficial and harmful bacteria in the intestines, itputs them at risk for a vitamin K deficiency

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Water soluble vitamin include as follows:Vitamin B

There are numerous of vitamin B where each one ofthem facilitates energy release in every cell, so a

deficiency affects the entire body deficiencies are rare when a diet is well balanced

Well known vitamin B includes:Thiamin Also known as vitamin B1 involved in nervous-system and muscle functioning, the flow of

electrolytes in and out of nerve and muscle cells, carbohydratemetabolism, and the production of hydrochloric acid

Chronic alcohol intake and an inadequate diet can lead to a thiamindeficiency

Deficiency: Beriberi

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Riboflavin Also known as vitamin B2 plays a role in energy metabolism

similar function and sources as thiamin

Niacin Also known as vitamin B3 or nicotinic acid

plays a role in energy metabolism as well as the responsible for the synthesisand breakdown of fatty acids

Deficiency: Pellagra

Folate Also known as vitamin B9, folacin or folic acid

produce and maintain new cells

protection of developing fetuses Deficiency: neural tube defects that result in malformations of the spine (spina

bifida), skull, and brain (anencephaly)

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Vitamin B12 Also needed for producing and maintaining new cells

needed to maintain the sheaths that surround and protect nerve fibers

Deficiency: pernicious anemia where symptoms include fatigue, weakness,

constipation, loss of appetite, weight loss, and numbness and tingling in

the hands and feet

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Vitamin C needed to form collagen in bones, cartilage, muscle,

and blood vessels, and aids in the absorption of iron

Deficiency: scurvy may include loss of appetite,diarrhea, shortness of breath, weakness, and fever,

followed by irritability, depression, leg pain,pseudoparalysis, swelling over long bones of thebody, anemia, paleness, poor wound healing,corkscrew hair, dry eyes, skin thickening(hyperkeratosis), and bleeding (particularly gum

bleeding, bleeding behind the eyes causingprominence, bleeding at the joints of the ribs andsternum causing discoloration under the skin of thechest, skin bruising, or blood in the urine or stool)

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Some vitamins can act as antioxidantAntioxidant: a molecule capable of slowing or

preventing the oxidation of other molecules

Oxidants or "free radicals," are also introducedthrough external sources such as exposure to

the sun or pollution

Other mediums include stress, as well as things

that people put into their bodies, such asalcoholic beverages, unhealthy foods, and

cigarette smoke

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Free radicals produced breakdown of cellsthrough chain reaction which will attack

healthy cells, usually DNA as well as proteins

and fats

weakens immunological functions as well as

speeding up the aging process, and is also

linked to several diseases such as cataracts,

various forms of cancer, and heart disease Some studies indicate possible links to arthritis

and several other chronic conditions.

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Antioxidant agent helps to reduce the effectof dangerous oxidants by binding togetherwith these harmful molecules, decreasing theirdestructive power

also help repair damage already sustained bycells

Vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E are themost well known antioxidant; reducing agent

Vitamin A: have a beta-ionone ring whichconverted from beta-carotene; main source:carrot, liver, broccoli, spinach

VITAMINVITAMIN


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Vitamin C: L-ascorbic acid; a highlyeffective antioxidant; where the ascorbate

ion acts as an electron donor for important

enzymes; main source: citrus fruits, rose

hips

Vitamin E: a generic term for tocopherols

and tocotrienols; stops the production of

reactive oxygen species formed when fatundergoes oxidation; main source:

asparagus; avocado, nuts, vegetable oils

VITAMINVITAMIN


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are antimicrobial substances that areapplied to living tissue/skin

to reduce the possibility of infection, sepsis,

or putrefactionSome are true germicides: capable of

destroying microbes (bacteriocidal); others

are bacteriostatic: only prevent or inhibit

their growth

ANTISEPTICSANTISEPTICS


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Antibacterial that have the proven abilityto act against bacteria especially if theytarget systems which kill only bacteria

Some common antiseptic:

Ethyl alcohol functioning well to inhibit the growth and

reproduction of many microorganisms, includingbacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses

70% alcohol is a more effective antiseptic than100% alcohol where 70% alcohol causescoagulation to occur more gradually, slowing downthe microorganism from the inside out



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Iodine Usually used in an alcoholic solution

the widest scope of antimicrobial activity, killing all

principal pathogenes

Other example: boric acid, hydrogen peroxide,sodium chloride


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Chap 6 Industrial Chemistry