Chapter 01 Lecture Outline

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Chapter 01

Lecture Outline

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• Anatomy studies the form and

structure of the body

• Physiology examines how the body

functions

• Form and function are interrelated

1.1 Anatomy and Physiology Compared

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1.1a Anatomy: Details of Structure and Form

• Subdivisions of microscopic anatomy

Cytology—study of body cells and their internal

structure

Histology—study of tissues

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1.1a Anatomy: Details of Structure and Form

• Subdivisions of gross anatomy

Systemic anatomy studies anatomy of each functional

body system

Regional anatomy examines all of the structures in a

particular region of the body

Surface anatomy focuses on superficial anatomic

markings and internal body structures

Comparative anatomy examines anatomical similarities

and differences in different species

Embryology studies developmental changes from

conception to birth

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1.1b Physiology: Details of Function

• Physiologists examine the following organ systems,

focusing on the molecular and cellular level

Cardiovascular, functioning of the heart, blood vessels, and

blood

Neurophysiology, functioning of nerves and nervous system

organs

Respiratory physiology, functioning of respiratory organs

Reproductive physiology, functioning of reproductive

hormones and the reproductive cycle

Pathophysiology, relationship between the function of an

organ system and disease or injury to the system

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Copyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill EducationCopyright © 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education

What did you learn?

• What subdiscipline of

anatomy may explore how the

lower limb differs between

humans and chimpanzees?


anatomy focuses on cells?


physiology focuses on

disease?

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1.3a Characteristics That Describe Living Things

Properties common to all organisms

• Organization

All organisms exhibit a complex structure and order

• Metabolism—the sum of all chemical reactions that

occur within the body

Anabolism—small molecules joined to form larger ones

Catabolism—large molecules broken down into smaller ones

• Growth and development

Organisms assimilate materials from environment; grow and

develop

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1.3a Characteristics that Describe Living Things

Properties common to all organisms (continued )

• Responsiveness—ability to sense and react to stimuli

• Regulation

Ability to adjust internal bodily function to accommodate

environment changes

Homeostasis—ability to maintain body structure and function

• Reproduction

Produce new cells for growth, maintenance, and repair

With sex cells (gametes), can develop into new organisms

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Figure 1.2

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Levels of Organization in the Human Body

1.3b The View from Simplest to Most Complex

• Chemical level

Atoms—smallest units of matter

Molecules—one or more combined atoms

oE.g., sugar, water, vitamin

Macromolecules—more complex molecules

oE.g., proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

oOrganelles—microscopic structures within cells

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• Cellular level

Cells—the smallest living structures

oBasic units of structure and function in

organisms

oFormed from molecules from the chemical level

oVary widely in structure, reflecting specialized

functions

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• Tissue level

– Groups of similar cells performing common

functions

– Four main categories of tissues

oEpithelial tissue covers exposed surfaces and lines body

cavities

oConnective tissue protects, supports, and binds structures

and organs

oMuscle tissue produces movement

oNervous tissue conducts nerve impulses

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• Organ level

– Two or more tissue types performing specific functions

o E.g., the small intestine composed of all four tissue types, working

to process and absorb digested nutrients

• Organ system level

– Related organs working together to achieve a common

function

o E.g., organs of the digestive system working together to digest

food, absorb nutrients, and expel waste products

• Organismal level

– Highest level of structural organization

– All body systems function interdependently

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• Levels of organization from simplest to most

complex

Chemical level

____________

____________

____________

____________

____________

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• Levels of organization from simplest to most

complex

Chemical level

Cellular level

Tissue level

Organ level

Organ system level

Organismal level

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1.3c Introduction to Organ Systems

11 organ systems of the human body

1. Integumentary system

2. Skeletal system

3. Muscular system

4. Nervous system

5. Endocrine system

6. Cardiovascular system

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1.3c Introduction to Organ Systems

11 organ systems of the human body (continued )

7. Lymphatic system

8. Respiratory system

9. Urinary system

10. Digestive system

11. Male and female reproductive systems

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Figure 1.318

Organ

Systems

Figure 1.3 (continued)

19

Organ

Systems

Figure 1.3 (continued)

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Organ

Systems


What did you learn?

• What characteristics are common to all life?

• List the levels of organization within the body, starting with the most complex?

• Which organ system is responsible for filtering waste products from the blood and excreting them in urine? For movement and generation of heat? Contains the site for blood cell formation?

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1.4a Anatomic Position

• Common reference position

• Characteristics of anatomic position

– Upright stance

– Feet parallel and flat on the floor

– Upper limbs at the sides of the body

– Palms face anteriorly (toward the front)

– Head is level

– Eyes look forward

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1.4b Sections and Planes

• “Slices” of body called sections or planes

Section—actual cut or slice that exposes internal

anatomy

Plane—imaginary flat surface passing through body; 3

types

o Coronal (or frontal ) plane

˗ Vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and

posterior (back) parts

o Transverse (or cross-sectional ) plane

˗ Horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (top) and

inferior (bottom) parts

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1.4b Sections and Planes

Plane (continued )

o Midsagittal (or median) plane

˗ Vertical plane dividing the body into equal left and right

halves

o Sagittal plane

˗ Parallel to midsagittal, but left or right of midsagittal;

divides structure into unequal portions

o Oblique plane

˗ Passes through structure at an angle

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Figure 1.425

Figure 1.6

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Directional Terms in Anatomy

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What did you learn?

• What plane divides the body into anterior/posterior halves?

• The elbow is ________ to the wrist?

• The toes are ________ to the knee?

• The mouth is ________ to the ear?

• The hairs on my head are ________ to the skin?

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1.4d Regional Anatomy

• Human body is partitioned into two main

regions

Axial region

o Head, neck, and trunk

o Forms the main vertical axis of the body

Appendicular region

o Upper and lower limbs

• Several more regions within these two main

ones

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Figure 1.7a

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Figure 1.7b

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What did you learn?

• The term antebrachial refers to which body region?

• The term crural refers to which body region?

• The term axillary refers to which body region?

• Where can I find the deltoid muscle?

• If a patient is complaining of lower back pain, what region could be involved?

• What region is involved with tarsal tunnel syndrome?

• A Baker’s cyst is usually found in the popliteal fossa which is the region of?

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Figure 1.834

Body Cavities

1.4e Body Cavities and Membranes

• Significant difference between posterior aspect and

ventral cavity—subdivisions of ventral cavity are lined

with serous membranes

• Two layers of serous membranes

Parietal layer lines internal surface of body wall

Visceral layer covers external surface of organs (viscera)

o Serous cavity—space between membranes

• Serous fluid

– Liquid secreted by cells in serous membrane

– Acts as lubricant

– Reduces friction caused by movement of organs against body

wall35


Thoracic cavity• Mediastinum—median space in the thoracic cavity

– Contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels that connect to the heart

• Pericardial cavityo Space between parietal and visceral layers containing serous

fluid

– Parietal pericardium

o Outer layer, which forms the sac around the heart

– Visceral pericardium

o Forms the heart’s external surface

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– Pleural cavity

o Space between parietal and visceral layers containing

serous fluid

– Parietal pleura

o Outer layer lines internal surface of thoracic wall

– Visceral pleura

o Inner layer covers external surface of lungs

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Figure 1.9 b-c

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Serous

Membranes in the

Thoracic and

Abdominopelvic

Body Cavities


Abdominopelvic cavity

• Abdominal cavity

– Superior area

– Contains most of the digestive system organs, kidneys, and

most of the ureters

• Pelvic cavity

– Inferior area, between hip bones

– Contains distal part of large intestine, remainder of ureters

and urinary bladder, and internal reproductive organs

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Abdominopelvic cavity (continued )

• Peritoneum—two-layered serous membrane lining the

abdominopelvic cavity

– Parietal peritoneum

o Outer layer, which lines the internal walls of the abdominopelvic

cavity

– Visceral peritoneum

o Inner layer, which covers the external surface of most abdominal and

pelvic organs

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Figure 1.9d

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Serous

Membranes in the

Thoracic and

Abdominopelvic

Body Cavities

1.4f Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants


is partitioned into nine

compartments

• Umbilical region

– Middle region, named

for the umbilicus

(navel) that lies in its

center

• Epigastric region

– Superior to umbilical

• Hypogastric region

– Inferior to umbilicalFigure 1.10a 42


compartments

(continued )

• Right and left

hypochondriac regions

– Inferior to costal cartilages

and lateral to epigastric

• Right and left lumbar

regions

– Lateral to umbilical

• Right and left iliac

regions

– Lateral to hypogastric


Figure 1.10a43

• Abdominopelvic

cavity can also be

divided into four

compartments with

transverse and

midsagittal planes

through the umbilicus

– Right and left upper

quadrant

– Right and left lower

quadrant


Figure 1.10b44


What did you learn?

• Which body cavity is associated

with the lungs?

• Which body cavity is associated

with the heart?

• What serous membrane lines the

abdominopelvic cavity?

• Patient with pain in the RUQ may

cause you to suspect involvement

of which organ(s)?

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1.5 Homeostasis: Keeping

Internal Conditions Stable

• Hundreds of anatomic structures and

physiologic processes are continuously

monitored and adjusted

• Homeostasis—the ability of an organism to

maintain consistent internal environment, or

“steady state,” in response to changing internal

or external conditions

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1.5a Components of Homeostatic Systems

Three components of homeostatic systems

• Receptor detects changes in a variable

Stimulus (e.g., change in temperature sensed by skin)

• Control center interprets input from receptor and

initiates changes through effector

Nervous system can provide a quicker response

o E.g., regulation of blood pressure upon rising

Endocrine response is more sustained

o E.g., parathyroid hormone regulating calcium levels

• Effector is the structure that brings about changes to

alter the stimulus

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Figure 1.1148

Components of a Homeostatic Control Mechanism

1.5b Homeostatic Systems Regulated

by Negative Feedback

• Negative feedback

Controls most processes in the body

Variable fluctuates within a normal range around a set

point

If a stimulus increases a variable, receptor informs

homeostatic control system, which activates effector to

decrease variable back into normal range

If a stimulus decreases a variable, receptor informs

homeostatic control system, which activates effector to

increase variable back into normal range

So, in negative feedback, homeostatic control responds to

move variable in opposite direction to bring it into

normal range49

Example: Temperature regulation

1. Body temperature drops

2. Sensory receptors detect this and signal hypothalamus in the brain

3. Hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to smooth muscle in blood

vessels in skin, causing them to contract, called vasoconstriction,

which decreases internal passageway, or lumen, of vessels

4. This decreases blood flow to the surface of the body

5. Thus, less heat is released through skin

6. Also, nerve impulses are sent to skeletal muscles, causing

shivering to warm body

7. Also, nerve impulses are sent to piloerector muscles attached to

hair follicles in skin, causing them to contract (goosebumps) to

warm the body



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Example: Temperature regulation (continued )

1. Body temperature rises

2. Sensory receptors detect rise and signal hypothalamus

3. Hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to smooth muscle in

blood vessels in the skin, causing relaxation or

vasodilation, which increases size of lumen

4. Increases blood flow to body surface

5. So, more heat is released through skin



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Figure 1.13a52

Figure 1.13b53

• Other examples of homeostatic regulation

– Withdrawal reflex in response to injury

– Regulating heart rate and blood pressure during exercise

– Changing breathing rate in response to increased carbon

dioxide

– Parathyroid hormone release in response to decreased

calcium

– Release of insulin by the pancreas in response to increased

blood glucose



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1.5c Homeostatic Systems Regulated

by Positive Feedback

• Positive feedback

Occurs much less frequently than negative

feedback

Stimulus reinforced to continue moving variable

in same direction until a climactic event occurs,

then body returns to homeostasis

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• Positive feedback during breastfeeding

1. Sensory detectors detect baby suckling

2. Message is transmitted to the hypothalamus

3. Hypothalamus signals posterior pituitary to release the

hormone oxytocin

4. Oxytocin stimulates the mammary gland to eject breast milk

5. Cycle repeats as long as the baby suckles

• Other examples of positive feedback

– Blood clotting cascade

– Uterine contractions of labor

1.5c Homeostatic Systems Regulated

by Positive Feedback

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Figure 1.1557

Positive Feedback

• Normal ranges for homeostatic variables

– Body temperature 98.6ºF

– Blood glucose 80–110 mg/dL

– Blood pressure 90–120/60-80 mm Hg

– Determined by sampling healthy individuals in a

population

– Normal range is value for 95% of individuals sampled

– 5% of healthy population have values outside normal range

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Clinical View: Establishing Normal Ranges

for Clinical Practice

• Diabetes is an example of homeostatic imbalance

– Occurs when homeostatic mechanisms for regulating blood

glucose are not functioning normally

• Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

– Blood glucose fluctuations and high glucose readings

• Viral or Bacterial infections and fever

– Alters the set point of normal body temperature

– If not controlled, cell death can occur from inability to

maintain homeostasis

1.6 Homeostasis, Health, and Disease

59

• Treating patients involves finding a diagnosis, a

specific cause of the homeostatic imbalance

• Developing a diagnosis

– Examine patient and gather data

o E.g., patient health history, complaints, current vital signs such as

weight and blood pressure

– Initial hypothetical diagnosis

– Order tests

– Confirm, modify, or reject initial diagnosis

– Definitive diagnosis

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Clinical View: Clinicians’ Use

of Scientific Method

Drugs may affect normal homeostatic control mechanisms (e.g.,

SSRIs)

• Patients with depression may have lower levels of serotonin in

their brains

• SSRI drugs block reuptake of serotonin into nerve cells in

brain, thus prolonging its effects; SSRIs help elevate mood of

patients with depression

• Side effects of SSRIs due to

– Serotonin also used in nerve cells of digestive system

– Digestive system becomes more excitable due to SSRI

– Symptoms include nausea and upset stomach

1.6 Homeostasis, Health, and Disease

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Clinical View: Medical Imaging

Radiography

Positron Emission

Tomography (PET)

Magnetic

Resonance

Imaging (MRI)

Digital Subtraction

Angiography (DSA)

Computed Tomography (CT)

Sonography

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Abdominal CAT Scan

MRI of the Lumbar Spine

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Chapter 01 Lecture Outline