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Chapter 1The Science of Genetics
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Chapter Outline
Three Great Milestones in GeneticsDNA as the Genetic MaterialGenetics and EvolutionLevels of Genetic AnalysisGenetics in the World: Applications of
Genetics to Human Endeavors
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Three Great Milestones in Genetics
Gregor Mendel: Genes and the rules of inheritance
James Watson and Francis Crick: the structure of DNA
The Human Genome Project: sequencing DNA and cataloguing genes
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Mendel: Genes and theRules of Inheritance (1866)
Genes—hereditary factors responsible for traits
Alleles —different forms (versions) of hereditary factors (genes)
Traits —A physical characteristic brought about by the expression of a gene or many genes.
Rules of Inheritance– Alleles of the same gene
separate during gamete formation
– Alleles of different genes are inherited independently
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gene:DNA sequence (fragment) that holds the information for a trait
Trait: a notable feature or quality in an individual that makes us unique
Allele:an alternative form (versions) of a gene (one of a pair) that occupy a specific position on a specific chromosome. Variation among non-coding DNA sequences.
Locus (plural loci): specific location of a gene (DNA sequence )on a chromosome
Chromosome: nucleoprotein structure observed during cell division
Mitosis: One (single) cell division producing two identical daughter cells
Meiosis: Two cell divisions resulting in 4 cells NOT genetically identical
What is a Gene? Genes are made of nucleic acids Nucleic acids are made of building
blocks called nucleotides Nucleotides have three
components– Sugar molecule (ribose or
deoxyribose)– Phosphate molecule– Nitrogen-containing molecule
(adenine-A-, guanine-G-, cytosine-C-, thymine-T-, uracil-U-)
RNA is ribonucleic acid DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(OH)!!!! Splicing reaction
The Structure of a Nucleotide
Nucleoside
Nucleotide
Watson and Crick:The Structure of DNA (1953)
Nucleotides are linked in a chain through sugar-phosphate interactions
DNA molecules are made of two chains of nucleotides wound around each other in a helix
Base pairs hold the chains together– A pairs with T– G pairs with C
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(Rosalind Franklin)
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
http://www.scripps.edu/romesberg/Research/BaseDesign.html http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v509/n7500/full/nature13314.html
dX dY
The Human Genome Project:Sequencing DNA and Cataloguing Genes
Genome—the collection of DNA molecules that is characteristic of an organism
Genomics is the analysis of DNA sequences that make up a genome
Genomics involves DNA sequencing technology, robotics, and computer science
The Human Genome Project determined the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of the human genome © John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DNA as the Genetic Material
Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein (Central Dogma).
In all cellular organisms, the genetic material is DNA.
The genetic material– Must be able to replicate– Must contain information– Must be able to change
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The flow of information is DNA RNA protein.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DNA Replication (duplication)
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DNA Replication
Based on the complementary ( anti-parallel) nature of the two strands of duplex DNA molecules.
When the two parental strands are separated, the separated strands can serve as template for the synthesis of new strands.
New strands are assembled by incorporating nucleotides according to base-pairing rules.
At the end of replication, each template strand is paired with a newly synthesized partner strand.
DNA replication is catalyzed by enzymes.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gene Expression:Using Genetic Information
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Gene Expression
During transcription, an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA template.
This messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules contains the information needed to synthesize a polypeptide.
During translation, the triplet codons in the RNA specify the incorporation of particular amino acids into a polypeptide chain.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Proteome/GenomeProteome/Genome—the collection of all the
different proteins (genes) in an organism.
Humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes in the genome and hundreds of thousands to millions of proteins in the proteome.
Proteomics/Genomics—the study of all the proteins (genes) in cells.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The flow of information is DNA RNA protein. Some viruses can use RNA as a template for the synthesis
of DNA in reverse transcription ( Human?). Many genes do not encode polypeptides; their end-products
are RNA molecules [microRNA(miRNA) and piRNA]© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 1. The match results of clean reads.
Yang Q, Hua J, Wang L, Xu B, et al. (2013) MicroRNA and piRNA Profiles in Normal Human Testis Detected by Next Generation Sequencing. PLoS ONE 8(6): e66809. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0066809http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0066809
TelomeresThe end of each chromosome is called a telomere and is distinguished by a set of repeated sequences.
New repeats are added by a telomerase, a reverse transcriptase that synthesizes DNA from a RNA template.
Telomeres are required for the complete replication of the chromosome because they protect the ends from being degraded.
Telomerase activity:“is thought to have major effects on cell life”
Mutation:Changing Genetic Information
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Genetics and Evolution
Variation in the DNA sequence makes it possible for species to evolve over time.
Organisms with similar DNA sequences are descended from a common ancestor.
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A phylogenetic tree
A phylogenetic tree, or phylogeny, represents the historical relationships
among organisms.
Cytochrome B gene similarities
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Evolution depends on the occurrence, transmission, and spread of mutant genes in groups of organisms.
DNA sequence data provide a way of studying the historical process of evolution.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Levels of Genetic Analysis
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Geneticists approach their science from different points of view—from that of a gene, a DNA molecule, or a population of organisms.
- Classical (Transmission) Genetics
- Molecular Genetics
- Population Genetics
Classical Genetics
Based on analysis of the outcomes of crosses between different strains of organisms.
Can be coordinated with studies of the structure and behaviour of chromosomes.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Molecular Genetics
Studies the replication, expression, and mutation of genes at the molecular level.
Rooted in the study of DNA sequences and the manipulation of DNA molecules.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Population GeneticsIndividuals within a population may carry
different alleles of genes.
Population genetics is based on analyzing allele frequencies in a population and determining whether these frequencies changes over time.
Population genetics includes evolution and the inheritance of complex traits.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Genetics in the World:
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Genetics is relevant in many venues outside the research laboratory.
Genetics in Agriculture:Selective Breeding
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Genetics in Agriculture:Genetically Modified Organisms
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are have been altered by the introduction of foreign resistance genes.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Genetics in Medicine
Inborn Errors of Metabolism are metabolic abnormalities caused to mutant alleles.
Molecular genetics– new ways to detect mutant alleles (BRCA1).– new ways to treat diseases.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Genetics in SocietyEconomic impact—biotechnology industry,
pharmaceutical industry.
Legal impact—paternity testing, forensics, identification
Can you patent a gene sequence?
Can you patent a natural product?
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Model Genetics Organisms
---Drosophila melanogaster (fly)
---Escherichia coli ( bacteria)
---Caenorhabditis elegans (worm)
---Arabidopsis Thaliana (plant)
---Mus musculus (mice)
---Sacharomyces cerevisiae ( yeast)
--Homo sapiens (humans) –Clinical trails ….??