Chapter 11

11-1 What is genetics?

The scientific study of heredity

Gregor Mendel

Born in 1822 in Czechoslovakia.Became a monk at a monastery in 1843.Taught biology and had interests in statistics.Also studied at the University of Vienna

Mendel continued

Between 1856 and 1863 he grew and tested over 28,000 pea plants

Mendel’s PeasEasy to grow.

Easily identifiable traits

Can work with large numbers of samples

Mendel’s experiments

The first thing Mendel did was create a “pure” generation or true-breeding generation.He made sure that certain pea plants were only able to self pollinate, eliminating unwanted traits.He did this by cutting away the stamen, or male part of each flower

Genes and dominance

Trait : a characteristicMendel studied seven of these traitsAfter Mendel ensured that his true-breeding generation was pure, he then crossed plants showing contrasting traits.

He called the offspring the F1 generation or first filial.

What will happen when pure yellow peas are crossed with

pure green peas?All of the offspring were yellow.

Hybrids = the offspring of crosses between parents with contrasting traits

What did Mendel conclude?

Inheritance is determined by factors passed on from one generation to another.

Mendel knew nothing about chromosomes, genes, or DNA. Why?

These terms hadn’t yet been defined.

What were Mendel’s “factors”

The ‘factors” that Mendel mentioned were the genes.

Each gene has different forms called alleles

Mendel’s second principle stated that some alleles are dominant and some are recessive.

Mendel’s second cross

He allowed the F1 generation to self-pollinate thus producing the F2 generation.

Did the recessive allele completely disappear?

What happened when he crossed two yellow pea hybrid (F1) plants?

Results:

¾ of the peas were yellow, ¼ of the peas were green.During the formation of the sex cells or gametes, the alleles separated or segregated to different gametes. (pollen and egg)

11-2 Probability

The likelihood of a particular event occurring. Chance

Can be expressed as a fraction or a percent.

Example: coin flip.

Punnett Square

Developed by Reginald Punnett.

A diagram used to show the probability or chances of a certain trait being passed from one generation to another.

Reading Punnett squares

Gametes are placed above and to the left of the square

Offspring are placed in the square.

Capital letters (Y) represent dominant alleles.

Lower case letters (y) represent recessive alleles.

Punnett square example

Homozygous = when an organism possesses two identical alleles. ex.YY or yy

Heterozygous = when an organism possesses different alleles. ex.Yy

Phenotype vs genotype

Genotype The genetic makeup Symbolized with

letters Tt or TT

Phenotype

Physical appearance of the organism

Expression of the trait

Short, tall, yellow, smooth, etc.

Probability and statistics

No one event has a greater chance of occurring than another.

You cannot predict the precise outcome of an individual event.

The more trials performed, the closer the actual results to the expected outcomes.

Punnett square review:

11-3 Independent Assortment

The two factor cross. Example: color and shape of peas.

F1 cross to produce the F2 generation

Ex RRYY x rryy

Round yellow mated with wrinkled green• Offspring would all be hybrid for both

traits (RrYy)

What is independent assortment?

Alleles separate independently during the formation of gametes.

The dihybrid cross

Punnett square on board:

Some exceptions to Mendel’s principles:

Some alleles are neither dominant nor recessive.

Many traits are controlled by more than one gene (polygenic traits)

Incomplete dominance

A situation in which neither allele is dominant.

When both alleles are present a “new” phenotype appears that is a blend of each allele.

Alleles will be represented by capital letters only.

Japanese four-o-clock flowers

Red flower plant genotype = RR

White flower plant genotype = WW

Pink flower plant genotype = RW

What happens when a red flower is crossed with a

white flower?

According to Mendel either some white and some red or all offspring either red or white.All are pink

Codominance

When two alleles both appear in the phenotype.

Usually signified using superscripts.

example: color of hair coat in cattle.

crcr = red hairs

cwcw = white hairs

crcw = roan coat (mixture of both colors)

Roan cattle inheritance

Multiple allele inheritance – Blood Types

When two or more alleles contribute to the phenotype.

Human blood types: A,B,O and AB

A and B are codominant to each other.

Both A and B are dominant over O.

Human Blood types: Type A

TYPE A

Allele = IA

Blood cells have small antigens on the surface.

Human Blood types: Type B

TYPE B

Allele = IB

Cells coated with type B antigens

Human Blood types: Type AB

TYPE AB

genotype = IAIB

Blood cells contain both types of antigens

Known as universal recipient

Human Blood types: Type O

TYPE OAllele = i No antigens on the surface of the blood cellsKnown as universal donor

6 different genotypes

IAIA

IAIB

IBIB

IBi

IAi

i i

Type A

Type AB

Type B

Type B

Type A

Type O

How common are the different blood types?

Sample Problem:

A man with type AB blood marries a woman with type B blood whose father has type O blood. What are the chances that they have a child with type A blood? Type AB?

Polygenic traits

Traits controlled by two or more genes.Examples:Human height,eye and skin color

11-4 Meiosis

A method of cell division similar to mitosis.

2 main differences:

1. There are two divisions to produce 4 daughter cells

2. The cells produce contain ½ the chromosomes as the original cell

Chromosome number

All cells of an organism contain a specific number of chromosomes.

Most cells are diploid (2n) meaning they have two copies of each chromosome

Events of Meiosis I

During prophase I, each chromosome pairs with its homologous chromosome to form a tetrad

Crossing-Over

Crossing-over: an exchange of genetic material between sister chromatids

Results in greater variation

Meiosis II

Neither cell replicates its chromosomes.

Each cell splits (similar to mitosis)

Produces four daughter cells.

Animation

Gametogenesis

Literally means “creation of gametes”

Egg and sperm

2 types: Spermatogeneis & Oogenesis

Net result:

Spermatogensis

4 mature sperm

Each sperm has exactly half the number of chromosomes as the father.

Oogensis

1 mature ova or egg.

Each egg has exactly half the number of chromosomes as the mother.

11-5 Gene Linkage

Are genes “linked” to each other on chromosomes?

Morgan found that many genes are linked together.

It was determined that chromosomes, not genes, assort independently during meiosis.

Gene Maps

First developed by Sturtevant in 1911.The farther apart two genes are, the more likely they will be separated in meiosis.

Transcription – Translation to Protein Synthesis

Transcription – overview

Genetic Code = triplets in DNA=the amino acids in proteins

• There are twenty different amino acids that build proteins

• There are 64 different triplets/codons• Each amino acid is coded for by more than

one triplet/codon

Translation-Overview

The Players

mRNA:messenger RNA - carries protein recipe from the nucleus

tRNA: transfer RNA -brings amino acids to the ribosome

Ribosome: the site of protein synthesis - made of rRNA (ribosomal RNA ) and Protein

The Process of TranslationmRNA takes recipe to the ribosome in cytoplasm

ribosome attaches to the mRNA

TranslationThe ribosome moves along the mRNA until it reaches the “Start” codon

Start codon = AUG signals the start of the recipe

AUG also codes for the amino acid methionine

The process of Translation•A molecule of transfer RNA brings the amino acid called for by the mRNA to the ribosome

•transfer RNA = tRNA

The process of TranslationA second tRNA brings the second amino acid to the ribosome

The amino acids are joined together to begin the protein

THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATION CONCLUDED

The ribosome moves over 1 codon and another tRNA molecule brings another amino acid

The process continues until the stop codon on the mRNA is reached

-the stop codon = the end of the protein recipe

Meet tRNAeach molecule of tRNA carries a specific type of amino acid

- each tRNA molecule can only carry one type of amino acid

The tRNA has a group of 3 nucleotides at the base called the anticodon

How does tRNA know which amino acid goes where?

The anticodon on tRNA is complementary to a mRNA codon

the amino acid that a tRNA molecule carries is the amino acid that the complementary mRNA codon codes for

Example:

mRNA codon = GAC = aspartic acid

tRNA anticodon = CUG carries only aspartic acid

What’s What?

Making the building(protein)