Chapter 11 Aggression. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.11 | 2 Table 11.1: The Violent Crime Clock Based on Federal Bureau of

Chapter 11Aggression

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 11 | 2

Table 11.1: The ViolentCrime Clock

Based on Federal Bureau of Investigations statistics


Is This an Act of Aggression?

• Accidentally injuring someone.

• Working tenaciously to try to sell a product to a customer.

• Biting someone on the neck.

• Swinging a stick at someone but missing.

• Hurling insults at someone.

• Deliberately failing to prevent harm.

• Murdering for money.• Hiring someone to

break a competitor’s kneecaps.

• Hitting others while in a rage.


What Is Aggression?

• By 1983, there were more than 250 different definitions of aggression.

• Aggression is defined as behavior that is intended to harm another individual

– How do we know someone’s intentions?– Aggressive behavior can come in many

different forms.


Language of Aggression

• Violence refers to extreme acts of aggression.• Anger consists of strong feelings of displeasure

in response to a perceived injury.• Hostility is a negative, antagonistic attitude

toward another person or group.


Types of Aggression

• Instrumental Aggression: Harm is inflicted as a means to a desired end.

• Emotional Aggression: Harm is inflicted for its own sake.

• Are these distinct categories or endpoints on a continuum?


Cultural, Gender,and Individual Differences


Figure 11.1: Violence Around the World

Based on Federal Bureau of Investigations statistics


Culture and Aggression

• Cultures differ with respect to:– The forms violence typically takes– People’s attitudes toward various kinds of aggression

• Cultures differ in aggression involving children.• However, some societies are known for their

nonviolence.


Table 11.2: NonViolent Societies

From Bruce Bonta, "Cooperation and Competition in Peaceful Societies" Psychological Bulletin, 121, 299-320, 1997. Copyright © 1997 by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.


Subcultures Within a Country

• Aggression varies within particular societies as a function of:

– Age– Class– Race– Region


In virtually every culture, males are more violent than females.

Answer: True…Let’s see why!

Putting Common Sense to the Test…


For virtually any category of aggression, males are more aggressive than females.

Answer: False… Let’s see why!



Gender and Aggression

• Universal findings that men are more violent than women.

– Differences stable over time and place.

• Challenges to the notion that men are more aggressive than females.

– Boys tend to be more overtly aggressive.– Girls often are more indirectly, or relationally,

aggressive.


Figure 11.2: Gender andTypes of Aggression


Origins of Aggression


Is Aggression Innate? Instinct Theories

• Freud: We have a death instinct.• Lorenz: Aggression is an innate, instinctual

motivation.• Problem with instinct theories is their reliance

on circular reasoning.


Is Aggression Innate? Evolutionary Psychology

• Similarities between Lorenz’s instinct theory and evolutionary psychology.

• Emphasis placed on genetic survival rather than survival of the individual.

– Accounts for inhibition of aggression against genetically related others.


Is Aggression Innate? Evolutionary Psychology (cont.)

• Why gender differences?– Males aggress to achieve and maintain status.– Females aggress to protect offspring.

• What about the historical and cultural diversity of human aggression?

– Response: Evolutionary and social factors are compatible and complementary.


Is Aggression Innate? Behavior Genetics

• Is an aggressive personality type due to genes?

• Mixed overall results on the heritability of aggression.


Figure 11.3: Fingers,Testosterone, and Aggression

Based on Bailey and Hurd, 2005.


Is Aggression Innate? The Role of Testosterone

• Are there specific biological factors that influence aggression?

• Strong positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggression.

– But correlation is not causation!


Is Aggression Innate? The Role of Serotonin

• The neurotransmitter serotonin appears to restrain impulsive acts of aggression.

– Low levels of serotonin associated with high levels of aggression.

– Boosting serotonin can dampen aggressiveness.

• But is the lack of serotonin an innate cause of aggression?


Children who are spanked or otherwise physically disciplined (but not abused) for behaving aggressively tend to become less aggressive.




Is Aggression Learned?

• Aggressive behavior is strongly affected by learning.

• Aggression can be positively as well as negatively reinforced.

– Positive reinforcement: Aggression produces desired outcomes.

– Negative reinforcement: Aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes.


Punishment and Aggression

• Punishment is most likely to decrease aggression when it:

– Immediately follows the aggressive behavior– Is strong enough to deter the aggressor– Is consistently applied and perceived as fair and

legitimate by the aggressor

• Problems with using punishment to reduce aggressive behaviors.


Social Learning Theory

• Behavior is also learned through the observations of others.

• Bandura et al.’s (1961) inflatable doll study.• Aggression most likely to increase if models are

rewarded and not punished for their aggressive behaviors.


Social Learning Theory (cont.)

• By watching aggressive models, people:– Learn specific aggressive behaviors– Develop more positive attitudes and beliefs about

aggression in general– Construct aggressive “scripts”

• Nonaggressive models decrease aggressive behavior.


Socialization andGender Differences

• Males and females are rewarded differently for aggression.

– Also have different models

• Social roles have a strong influence on gender differences in physical aggression.

• Continuity of aggression is less true of females than males.


Socialization andCultural Differences

• Socialization of aggression varies across cultures.

– e.g., Cultural differences in machismo

• A culture of honor emphasizes honor and status, particularly for males, and the role of aggression in protecting that honor.

– Promotes violent behavior


Situational Influenceson Aggression


Blowing off steam by engaging in safe but aggressive activities (such as sports) makes people less likely to aggress later.




Frustration: Aggression as a Drive

• Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:– Frustration always elicits the motive to aggress.– All aggression is caused by frustration.

• The motive to aggress is a psychological drive that resembles a physiological drive.

– Can lead to displacement.– Catharsis is the reduction of this motive.


Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis: Does the Research Support It?

• Frustration is related to aggression.– But frustration does not always produce aggressive

inclinations.– There are other causes of aggression besides

frustration.

• Is displacement a valid concept?


Catharsis

• Viewed as a two-step sequence– Aggression reduces the level of physiological

arousal.– Because arousal is reduced, become less angry

and less likely to aggress further.

• Sounds logical, but is it a myth?


Problems with Catharsis

• Imagined aggression or the observation of aggressive models is more likely to increase arousal and aggression than reduce it.

• Actual aggression can lower arousal levels.– But if aggressive intent remains, “cold-blooded”

aggression can still occur.– Also, if it feels good, more likely to act

aggressively again.


Problems with Catharsis (cont.)

• Feelings of hostility and anger may persist, and possibly increase.

• Even relatively low levels of aggression can loosen restraints against more violent behavior.


Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis Revised (Berkowitz, 1989)

• Frustration is but one of many unpleasant experiences that can lead to aggression by creating negative, uncomfortable feelings.

• It is the negative feelings, not frustration itself, that can trigger aggression.

– Negative feelings can also result from a wide variety of noxious stimuli.


Figure 11.5: The LinkBetween Heat and Violence

From C.A. Anderson (1989) "Temperature and Aggression: Ubiquitous Effects of Heat on Occurrence of Human Violence," Psychological Bulletin, 106, 74-96. Copyright (c) 1989 by the American Psychological Association. Adapted with permission.


Figure 11.6: Temper andTemperature in Baseball

From A.S. Reifman, R.P. Larrick, and S. Fein, "Temper and Temperature on the Diamond: The Heat-Aggression Relationship in Major-League Baseball," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 17, pp. 580-585.

Copyright (c) 1991 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.


Influences on Aggression

• Type of emotion (positive or negative)• Intensity of arousal

– Role of excitation transfer

• Arousal Affect Model: Aggression isinfluenced by:

– Intensity of arousal– Type of emotion produced by a stimulus


Figure 11.7:The Arousal-Affect Model


Cognitive Neoassociation Analysis

• Theory that feelings and thoughts interact.– Unpleasant experiences create negative affect.– Negative affect stimulates associations connected

with anger and fear.

• How one responds to these automatic thoughts and emotions is influenced by higher level cognitive processing.


Automatic Cognition:Situational Cues

• Weapons Effect: The tendency for the presence of guns to increase aggression.

• Potential aggression-enhancing situational cues are associated with:

– Successful aggression, or– The negative affect of pain or unpleasantness


Figure 11.8: Guns, Testosterone, and Hot Sauce: Evidence for the Weapons Effect


Higher Order Cognition:Cognitive Control

• Deliberate, thoughtful consideration of the situation can influence aggression.

• Aggression can be reduced because of mitigating information.

– Information the person should not be held fully responsible for aggressive actions.

• Some people exhibit a hostile attribution bias.


Alcohol and Aggression

• Alcohol, like high arousal, can impair the cognitive control of aggression.

• How does alcohol increase aggression?– Alcohol reduces anxiety, which lowers inhibitions

against aggression.– Intoxication causes alcohol myopia, a disruption in

the way we process information.


Figure 11.9:A Model of Situational Influences on Emotional Aggression

From C.A. Anderson, K.B. Anderson, and W.E. Deuser, "Examining an Affective Framework: Weapon and

Temperature Effects on Aggressive Thoughts, Affect, and Attitudes," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 22, pp. 366-376. Copyright © 1996 by Sage Publications,

Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.


Scenes of Violence

Media Effects


Exposure to TV violence in childhood is related to aggression in later life.

Answer: True… Let’s see why!



The Extent of Media Violence

• By the end of elementary school, a typical American child will have seen:

– 8,000 murders – More than 100,000 other acts of violence

• 2003 study found 534 separate episodes of prime-time violence during a 2 week period.

• The most violent TV shows are targeted to children (e.g., cartoons).


Figure 11.10: How Strong is the Relationship Between Media Violence and Real-World Aggression?

From C.A. Anderson and B.J. Bushman, "The Effects of Media Violence on Society," Science,Vol. 295, 2377-2379. Copyright © 2002 AAAS. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.


Immediate Effects ofMedia Violence

• Aggressive models increase aggressive behavior among children and adults.

– Models can be live or on film.

• Violent imagery in the music industry associated feelings of hostility and aggressive thoughts.

• Playing violent video games can increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors.


Long-Term Effects ofMedia Violence

• Exposure to TV violence at ages 6-9 positively correlated with aggression as adults.

– No gender difference

• Cross-cultural study found relationship between early viewing of TV violence and later aggression.


How Does Exposure to MediaViolence Have Long-Term Effects?

• Influences values and attitudes toward aggression.

• Through habituation become desensitized to violence.

• Depictions of violence can change values and attitudes through cultivation.


Figure 11.12: Media ViolenceEffects Across Types of Studies

From C.A. Anderson and B.J. Bushman, "The Effects of Media Violence on Society," Science, Vol. 295, 2377-2379. Copyright © 2002 AAAS. Reprinted with permission from AAAS.


Pornography and Aggression

• Positive correlation for men between exposure to pornography and reported sexually aggressive behaviors and attitudes.

• But what is pornography?– Often a matter of personal opinion.– Pornography refers to explicit sexual material,

regardless of its moral or aesthetic qualities.


Nonviolent Pornography

• Arousal-affect model revisited.• Nonviolent pornography can increase men’s

aggression against women.– But only when restraints that ordinarily inhibit male-

to-female aggression are reduced.

• Little support for direct causal link between pornography use and sexual aggression.


Violent Pornography

• Adding violence to pornography increases possibility of harmful effects.

– Brings together high arousal, negative emotional reactions, and aggressive thoughts.

• Male-to-female aggression is markedly increased after exposure to violent pornography.


Table 11.4: Attitudes About Sex and Aggression

Copyright © 1980 by the American Psychological Association. Reproduced

with permission. From M.C. Burt, “Cultural Myths and Supports for Rape,"

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 217-230, 1980. No further reproduction or distribution is

permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association.


Trust Betrayed

Intimate Violence


Sexual Aggression Among College Students

• Of the 3,187 females surveyed on 32 college campuses:

– Over 25% reported having experienced either an attempted or completed rape since age 14.

– Over 50% of these assaults occurred during a date.

• Majority of college women and about a third of college men say they have experienced coercive sexual contact.


Factors Associated with Sexual Aggression Among College Students

• Gender– Men are more likely to engage in coercive behavior

in order to obtain sex.

• Alcohol consumption• Attitudes toward rape and toward women


Figure 11.14: Alcohol andPerception of Sexual Aggression

Marx et al., 1999.


Men are much more likely than women to aggress against their spouses or partners.




Physical AggressionBetween Partners

• Partner abuse is a worldwide phenomenon.• Higher levels of wife-to-husband violence

reported than husband-to-wife abuse.– Consequences of aggression between partners

tend to be much more damaging to women.

• Violence between partners caused by multiple factors.


Child Abuse

• Estimated over a million children are physically abused and over 150,000 are sexually abused.

• Most severe abuse is often inflicted by parents and caretakers.

– Boys suffer more physical abuse than girls do.– Mothers are more likely to physically abuse their

children.– Girls suffer more sexual abuse than do boys.– Fathers are more likely to sexually abuse their

children.


Adults who as children were abused by their parents are less likely to inflict abuse on their own children than are other adults.




The Cycle of Family Violence

• Intergenerational transmission of domestic violence.

• But this cycle refers to a greater tendency, not an absolute certainty.


Multiple Causes, Multiple Cures

Reducing Violence


Reducing Aggression: Situationaland Sociocultural Factors

• Reduce stressors such as frustration, discomfort, and provocation.

• Teach and model nonviolent responses to frustrations and social problems.

• Emphasize cooperation over competitiveness.• Change cost-reward payoffs associated with

aggression.


Reducing Aggression:Media Effects

• Censorship?• Education may be most effective approach.

– Increase critical viewing skills.


Reducing Aggression:Intimate Violence

• Sex education programs that:– Emphasize desirability of being respectful and

considerate towards one’s partner.– Debunk rape myths.– Increase sensitivity.

• Provide family members with educational and employment opportunities to reduce family violence.

Documents

Chapter 11 Aggression. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.11 | 2 Table 11.1: The Violent Crime Clock Based on Federal Bureau of