Chapter 12: Marine - UNEP-WCMC

Broad Habitat | Chapter 12: Marine

Key Findings ...........................................................................................................................................212.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................5 12.1.1ChartingProgress...................................................................................................................................... 6 12.1.2MarineHabitats......................................................................................................................................... 6 12.1.3MarineFauna............................................................................................................................................. 7 12.1.4LinkageswithotherUKNationalEcosystemAssessmentHabitats....................................................... 812.2 Trends and Changes in Marine Habitats and Biodiversity ..............................................................8 12.2.1IntertidalRock........................................................................................................................................... 8 12.2.2IntertidalSediments.................................................................................................................................. 8 12.2.3SubtidalRockandotherHardSubstrata................................................................................................. 8 12.2.4ShallowandShelfSubtidalSediments.................................................................................................... 8 12.2.5Deep-seaHabitats..................................................................................................................................... 9 12.2.6Plankton..................................................................................................................................................... 9 12.2.7Fish............................................................................................................................................................. 9 12.2.8Seals.........................................................................................................................................................10 12.2.9Cetaceans.................................................................................................................................................11 12.2.10Birds........................................................................................................................................................11 12.2.11SummaryofPressuresCausingChangeinMarineHabitatsandtheirBiodiversity.......................... 1212.3 Ecosystem Goods and Services Provided by Marine Habitats for Human Well-being ..................12 12.3.1ProvisioningServices...............................................................................................................................13 12.3.2RegulatingServices.................................................................................................................................19 12.3.3CulturalServices......................................................................................................................................21 12.3.4SupportingServices................................................................................................................................ 26

12.3.5WildSpeciesDiversity............................................................................................................................. 27 12.3.6DeliveryofMarineEcosystemServicesbyDifferentComponentsoftheMarineHabitat andAssociatedFauna....................................................................................................................................... 29 12.3.7EcosystemServiceInteractionswithotherUKNEABroadHabitats.................................................. 2912.4 Trade-offs and Synergies Among Marine Ecosystem Goods and Services ...................................2912.5 Options for Sustainable Management ...........................................................................................31 12.5.1PolicyandLegislation............................................................................................................................. 31 12.5.2Conservation,ProtectedAreasandFisheriesManagement................................................................. 31 12.5.3ManagementofHumanActivitiesandFutureEnvironmentalChange............................................... 3212.6 Future Research and Monitoring Gaps .........................................................................................32References ............................................................................................................................................33Appendix ..............................................................................................................................................40

Chapter 12:MarineCoordinating Lead Authors: Melanie C. Austen, Stephen J. Malcolm Lead Authors: Mathew Frost, Caroline Hattam, Stephen Mangi, Grant Stentiford Contributing Authors: Stephen Benjamins, Michael Burrows, Momme Butenschön, Callan Duck, David Johns, Gorka Merino, Nova Mieszkowska, Alison Miles, Ian Mitchell, Tim Smyth

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2 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report

Key Findings*

The diversity of organisms in Marine habitats provide a range of ecosystem services and benefitsof significant value to UK society1.Thebenefitsincludefood(fish,shellfish);reduction of climate stress (carbon and other biogas regulation); genetic resources (foraquaculture);bluebiotechnology(e.g.biocatalysts,naturalmedicines);fertiliser(seaweed);coastalprotection;wastedetoxificationandremovalanddiseaseandpestcontrol;tourism,leisureandrecreationopportunities;afocusforengagementwiththenaturalenvironment;physicalandmentalhealthbenefits;andculturalheritageandlearningexperiences.Energyfromwavesandtidesandbiofuelsfrommacro-andmicroalgaearelikelytobeprovidedinthenearfuture.Manyofthebenefitsareaccrueddirectlybycoastaldwellersandvisitors,butalsoindirectlybymuchoftheUK’ssociety1,a.

1wellestablishedavirtuallycertain

Changes in sea temperature are likely to be affecting most Marine ecosystem services. Thesechangesarealreadyaffectingfoodproduction,wildlifepopulations,suchas seabirds, and possibly human health through the increase in optimum environmentalconditions foroutbreaksofpathogensc.Yetat thesame time, climatechangecouldbringincreasedbenefitsforthemarineleisureandrecreationindustriesbecauseofthepotentialfor warmer summers. Some of the effects of increases in sea temperature and those ofheavyfisheriesexploitationaredifficulttodistinguishfromeachotherandarelikelytohavesynergisticeffectsc.

clikely

Climate change is changing species distribution. This is particularly evident in coastal intertidal species, plankton and fish, where long-term data is richest.Comparison of historic (since the 1950s) and present distribution and abundance of over60 indicator species in theUKhas shownsomeof the fastest changes in theabundance,rangeandpopulationstructuresofspecies intheworld.Thesechangeshavebeenrelatedto recent, rapid climatic warming. In particular, several southern species of warm waterintertidalinvertebratesandmacroalgaehaveconsiderablyextendedtheirrangesnorthwardsalongtheWelshandScottishcoastlines,andeastwardsalongtheEnglishChannel.Northerncold water species have shown a modest contraction in range and significant declines inabundanceatsitesclosetotheirsouthernlimits.Thesespecies-specificratesofchangearedrivingalterationsofcommunitystructureandfunction1,a.


Human activities that affect the seafloor damage regulating and supporting services. Humanactivities thathaveaphysical impactontheseafloor (e.g. trawlfishing,building offshore windfarms, aggregate extraction, coastal defences, ports and coastaldevelopments) damage the benthic biota (species which live on the seabed) and theircommunities,andaffecttheregulatingandsupportingservicesthattheyprovide.Usuallytheimpactsarequitelocalised,butseabedtrawlfishingactivity,themostwidespreadoftheseactivities,hasthegreatestimpact1,a.


Increasing activity in several economic sectors in the Marine environment is putting extra pressure on all sea shelf, coastal and estuarine habitats1,c. Thesesectorsincludemarinerenewableenergydevelopment,expansioninrecreationandleisureactivities,andportactivities.Their impactsvary inspatialextentand importance,butarecompoundedby climatechange.Humancontaminationofmarinewaterswitha rangeofhazardous substances has been reduced through reductions in industrial effluent andimprovementsinsewagetreatmentinfrastructure1,a;however,therearenowconcernsaboutmorerecentlyintroducedchemicals,suchasnanoparticlesandpharmaceuticals,whichpassthroughsewagetreatmentplantsc.

1wellestablishedavirtuallycertainclikely

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3Broad Habitat | Chapter 12: Marine

The quantity of wild fish caught in UK waters is insufficient to meet the UK demand for this food. LandingsintoUKportsoffishandotherseafooddeclinedsteadilyfrom1.2milliontonneswetweightin1948to0.5milliontonnesin2000,buthaveremainedsteadysincethen.Since1945,therehasbeenanincreaseddemandforfishinthehumandietleadingtotheriseofaquaculture,particularlyoffinfishinScottishwatersandshellfishinEnglish,WelshandNorthernIrishwaters.Therehasalsobeena46%increaseinthevolumeoffishimportedfromoverseasbetween1998and20081,a.


The sustainability of food provision from Marine Habitats is threatened by overexploitation of fisheries; fishing is also damaging other Marine ecosystem services. Over the last 50 years, fishing activity has put significant pressure on livingresourcesandhabitats.SeveralfishstocksintheNorthSeaandIrishSeaareoverexploitedandaresubjecttorecoveryplans.Outof18indicatorfinfishstocksinUKwaters,only50%wereconsideredtohavefullreproductivecapacityandtobeharvestedsustainablyin2008,butthisisanimprovementfrom10%orlessintheearly1990s1,a.


Water purification and breakdown of waste by ecosystems appears to be keeping pace with inputs in open shelf waters, although localised contamination and some eutrophication problems persist1,a. ThewasteprocessingandpurificationserviceswidelyprovidedbyMarinehabitatsgenerallyensurethatfoodprovidedbytheseaissafetoeatandthewateriscleanenoughtouseforrecreation,suchasswimming,angling,scubadiving,andsurfingc.Insomecoastalwaters,suchasestuaries,localcontaminationbydiffusepollution(e.g.agriculturalfertiliser,urbanrunoffandsyntheticchemicals)stillexceedsthecapacityoftheecosystemtoremediateorassimilateitc.

1wellestablishedavirtuallycertainclikely

The UK’s seas are important to people’s quality of life but are less well protected than terrestrial environmentsa. The UK population has a strong affinity for the seaandhasalwaysderived inspiration from it.Morepeopleareusing thesea for leisureandrecreation, education, researchandhealthbenefits.Despite this, protectionof theMarineenvironmentfallsshortofthatonland.Forexample,thereareonly81marineSpecialAreasofConservation(SACs)outofatotalof621designatedundertheHabitatsDirective,andveryfewmarineSitesofSpecialScientific Interest (SSSIs).TheMarineandCoastalAccessAct(2009)signalsanincreasingawarenessofhowimportantMarineHabitatsaretoUKcultureandsocietyandwillfostergreaterbiodiversityprotectiona.

avirtuallycertain

Marine microbial organisms play a key role in cycling nutrients that are essential for other marine organisms and the services and benefits they provide1,a.Microbialprocessingofnutrients inthesedimentdependsoninvertebratesdisturbingandirrigatingthesediment2.Withoutthisrecycling,mostnutrientswouldbelost fromtheecosystemtotheseabedastheywouldsinkfromthewatercolumnandthenbeburieda.Inopenwater,planktoniccoccolithophoresmakeamajorcontributiontotheglobalcarbonsinka.Climatechangemayaffectinternalnutrientcyclingbychangingnutrientexchangeprocessesbetweentheopenwatersandtheopenoceanandalteringwaterstratification,butthelikelydirectionandextentofthesechangesisstillpoorlyunderstoodc.

1wellestablished2establishedbutincompleteevidenceavirtuallycertainclikely

Many organisms create living habitats such as reefs and seagrass meadows. These can provide essential feeding, breeding and nursery space that can be particularly important for commercial fish species1,c.Suchhabitatsplayacriticalrolein species interactions and the regulation of population dynamics, and are a prerequisitefor theprovisionofmanygoodsandservicesc. Fishingat theseabedwith trawlnetsanddredging fishing gears severely damages living reefs and deep-sea corals, which are veryslow-growing and, consequently, take a long time to recovera. Boat anchoring, propellerscarringandchanneldredgingcandamageshallowwaterandintertidalhabitatsc.However,buildingcoastaldefencesandoffshorestructures,suchaswindturbines,oilplatformsandreefs, provides artificial habitats which can have positive impacts, particularly for speciesusuallyassociatedwithrockyenvironmentsb.

1wellestablishedavirtuallycertainbverylikelyclikely

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Marine ecosystem services are strongly interlinked2,c. Very similar ecosystemfunctionsandbiologicalactivityunderpinwasteregulation,climateregulationandnutrientcycling. These functions also underpin cultural services, such as leisure and recreation,whichdependonclean,functioningseas.Attractiveseascapes,inshorefishingboats,andthelocalseafoodprovideenhancedlocaltourismandculturalservices.Yetfishingalsoaffectsothercomponentsoftheecosystem,damagingfoodwebsandseabedhabitats.Hence,theprovisioningserviceoffishingcannegativelyaffectdeliveryofotherservices.Forinstance,seabirdsandmammalsareimportantfortourismandrecreation,butcompetewithhumansforfishasfoodoraretrappedinfishingnets;thisindicatesatrade-offbetweenfoodprovision,culturalservicesandconservationa.

2establishedbutincompleteevidenceavirtuallycertainclikely

Farmland food production and urban waste disposal may conflict with the delivery of ecosystem services and benefits in estuarine and coastal waters2,c. Fertiliserusecanincreasefoodproduction,butexcessnutrientsrunoffthelandintoestuarineandcoastalwaters.Thesewatersalsoreceivesignificantamountsofotheragrochemicals(e.g.pesticides, artificial growth hormones), microorganisms and urban surface waste water,therebyprovidingacleansingregulatingserviceforfarmlandsandurbanhabitats.However,excessiveenrichmentofwaterbynutrientscanreducetheflowofoxygenandnutrientstotheseabed,withadeleteriouseffectonthewaterqualityandotherorganisms.Themajorpressuresoccurintheeast,southandnorth-westofEngland.Here,someestuarineareasarenutrient-enrichedandareatriskfrom,orcurrentlyaffectedby,eutrophication.Nevertheless,UKmarinewatersasawholedonotsufferfromeutrophication1,a.

1wellestablished2establishedbutincompleteevidenceavirtuallycertainclikely

The development of Marine Plans and designation of Marine Conservation Zones will incorporate the explicit objectives of sustaining and increasing ecosystem services and managing the use of marine resources sustainably.Itisimperativethattheseplansconsider the componentsofMarinehabitatsnotonly in termsofbiodiversityandhabitats,butalsowithregardstoecosystemfunctioningandtheprovisionofecosystemservices and benefits. The use of monetary and non-monetary valuation of ecosystemservices will aid the process of considering the impacts and benefits of development onMarinehabitatsa.

avirtuallycertain

The characteristics and biodiversity of a large proportion of UK subtidal Marine habitats is still unknown and not mapped; Marine ecosystem services are poorly quantified. We need to understand and measure the links between Marine biodiversity, ecosystem function and provision of ecosystem goods and services, and the effects of human impacts on these links. Althoughrecentnationalassessments(e.g. Charting Progress 2, State of Scotland’s Seas) have gathered a lot of evidence,extensivedatagapsremain.Suchknowledgewouldsupportmoreeffectivemarineplanningand licensing of activity in UK waters for the sustainable use of Marine habitats and themaintenanceofclean,healthy,productiveandbiologicallydiverseseasa.

avirtuallycertain

*Each Key Finding has been assigned a level of scientific certainty, based on a 4-box model and complimented, wherepossible,withalikelihoodscale.Superscriptnumbersandlettersindicatetheuncertaintytermassignedtoeachfinding.FulldetailsofeachtermandhowtheywereassignedispresentedinAppendix12.1.

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12.1 Introduction1

“How inappropriate to call this planet Earth, when it is quite clearly Ocean.” Arthur C. Clarke

ThebroadmarinehabitatcoversallUKareasthatareeitherpermanently immersed inseawaterorare inundatedwithsalinewateratsomestageinthetidalcycle.Thisincludesestuaries,beaches,coastsandallsubtidalhabitatsouttothelimitoftheUK’smarinearea(Figure 12.1).TheseasoftheUKextendtosome867,400km2,whichismorethanthreeandahalf times the landarea.MainlandBritainhasover17,820 km of coastline (based on ordnance survey digitalmeasurementsof1:10,000mapsusingthehighwaterline,www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/;Table 12.1) and the widestrangeofmarinehabitatsofanyEuropeancountrywithanAtlantic border (Hiscock 1996). These habitats support ahighdiversityofanimalsandplants,andarerankedasoneof the highest in Europe (Defra 2005) with approximately8,500 marine species (Hiscock & Smirthwaite 2004). Thisnumberonlyreferstomulti-cellularspecies,however,andmolecular techniquesarenowenablingdocumentationofthevastdiversityofmicrobesthatarenaturallypresentintheoceans.Onedrop(onemillilitre)ofseawatercancontain10millionviruses,1millionbacteriaandabout1,000smallprotozoansandalgae(Heipet al.2009).EstimatesofmarinebiodiversityfortheUKwill,therefore,continuetoberevised

upward as the diversity of the microbial component iselucidated.

Atphyleticlevelsmarinediversityishigherthandiversityon land or in freshwater. There are 14 exclusively marinephylaandonlyoneexclusivelyterrestrialphylum.Recordedmulti-cellular species diversity is lower in the marineenvironmentthanitisonlandandinfreshwater.

12.1.1 Charting ProgressTheunderlyingdataonthedescriptionofmarinehabitatsandspeciesandtheircurrentstatusandrecenttrends(Sections12.1.2,12.1.3,12.2)drawsheavilyontheinformationcollatedfor theChartingProgress (CP) reportspreparedby theUKMarine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy (UKMMAS)Community for the UK Government and the DevolvedAdministrations (Scottish Government, Welsh AssemblyGovernment, and the Department of the Environment,NorthernIreland).Thesereportsshowtheextentofprogresstowards theUKgovernmentanddevolvedadministrationsvision of “clean, safe, healthy, productive and biologicallydiverseoceansandseas”.Thefirstreportwaspublishedin2005(Defra,2005)andthelatestreport,ChartingProgress2(UKMMAS 2010), was published in July 2010. ChartingProgress2(CP2)focusesonthestateofcomponentsofthe

1 Section12.1Introductionhasbeenreproduced(withminormodifications)withpermissionfromFrost,M.(2010).

Figure 12.1 Charting Progress 2: UK Regional Seas and boundaries. 1) Northern North Sea; 2) Southern North Sea; 3) Eastern Channel; 4) Western Channel and Celtic Sea; 5) Irish Sea; 6) Minches and Western Scotland; 7) Scottish Continental Shelf; 8) Atlantic North-West Approaches, Rockall Trough and Faeroe/Shetland Channel. Source:mapbasedonUKMMAS(2010).Coastline:WorldVectorShoreline@National–GeospatialIntelligenceAgency.Source:NOASS,NGDC.

Table 12.1 Length of coastline for Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Lengths given with and without principal islands and derived from 1:10,000 Ordnance Survey maps. Sources:AdaptedfromFrost(2010),whereGBdataisderivedfromtheBritishCartographySociety(www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749)andNorthernIrelanddataisprovidedbytheAgri-Food&BiosciencesInstituteAFBI.

CoastlineApproximate Length (km)

England 8,982

England+PrincipleIslands(IsleofWight,Lundy,ScillyIsles)

10,077

Scotland 6,718

Scotland+PrincipleIslands(Arran,IslayandJura,ShetlandandOrkney,WesternIsles)

18,588

Wales 2,120

Wales+PrincipleIslands(AngleseyandHolyhead)

2,740

NorthernIreland 686

NorthernIreland+PrincipleIslands(Rathlin)

718

Total Mainland GB 17,820

Total GB + Principal Islands 31,368

Total UK(GB + Northern Ireland + Principle Islands)

32,086

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marineenvironmentincludingmarinehabitatsandrangingfrommicrobesthroughtohighertrophiclevelssuchasseals,cetaceansandturtles.Italsoprovidesinformationontrendsinthesecomponents,alongwiththepressuresanddriversofchange.ThisChapter(Sections12.1.2,12.1.3,12.2)includesasummaryoftherelevantsectionsofCP2andthesupportingFeederReports. Formore informationpleasevisit theCP2website:chartingprogress.defra.gov.uk/

12.1.2 Marine Habitats2

TheUKmarineseabedwascategorisedintosixcomponenthabitat types (Figure 12.2) for the CP2 assessment(Benjamins et al., 2010). These categories (Table 12.2)havealsobeenusedinthisandotherassessmentssuchasthe Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership (MCCIP)reportcard.

Intertidal Rocky habitats are widespread throughouttheUK,withtheexceptionofthesouth-easternandnorth-westerncoastsofEnglandwheretheyarealmostcompletelyabsentandtheintertidalzoneisdominatedbysandybeachesorintertidalmudflats.IntertidalSedimenthabitatsaremostcommoninEnglandandWales,makinguplargestretchesofcoastline,asopposedtoScotlandwherelengthsofIntertidalSedimentcoastlinesareinterruptedbyrockypromontoriesandheadlands.Nearly25%ofallIntertidalSedimentsoccurwithinestuaries(Wynet al.2006)wheremuddysedimentsareparticularlyprevalent.Saltmarshesalsotypicallyoccurwithinestuaries,usuallylandwardofintertidalmuds.

Inthesubtidalzone,sedimentaryhabitats,suchassand,gravel,mudsandmixedsediments,coveralmostallofthecontinentalshelfaroundtheUKaswellascoastalhabitatssuchassealochsandlagoons.ShallowSubtidalSedimenthabitats,whichcanberegularlydisturbedbysurfacewaves,are widespread in the Irish Sea, the Eastern Channel andtheSouthernNorthSea;theyalsooccurincoastallagoons,particularly in southern England and western Scotland.Shelf Subtidal Sediment habitats are only rarely disturbedbysurfacewavesbecauseoftheirgreaterwaterdepthand,therefore, support more stable communities. They occurthroughout offshore areas of most regional seas, but alsomuchclosertocoastswherethewaterdeepensrapidlysuchasaroundmostofScotland,NorthernIrelandandCornwall.

Subtidal Rock habitats are relatively uncommon. ThelargestexpansesoccurinScotland(particularlytothewestof the Hebrides and around Shetland) and in south-westEngland and Wales where there are significant offshorereefs. Biogenic reefs are included in this category andcan be quite extensive, such as beds of horse mussels(Modiolus modiolus),orsmallandisolated,suchasreefsofthetubeworm(Serpula vermicularis),bothofwhichhaveanortherndistributionintheUK.Therossworm(Sabellaria spinulosa) is very widespread and common, especially inthe south-east of England, but occurs mostly as crusts orisolatedindividuals,onlyrarelyforminglow-lyingreefs.

Deep-seahabitatsoccurbelow200m,beyondtheedgeofthecontinentalshelf.WithinUKwaterstheymainlyoccurtothenorthandwestofScotlandandwestofRockallislet,although therearealso smallareas in theextremesouth-western Celtic Sea. Most of these are sediment habitats,withrockyhabitatsandreefslargelyconfinedtoseamountsandsimilarstructures.

In addition, the marine environment has a pelagiccomponent which is the water overlying the seabed.Additional physical factors influence marine habitats andthe organisms that live in them including: temperature,tidalflows,wind-inducedwaveexposureandstratification.Thesephysicalfactorsareinfluencedbythestructureofthecoastline.Forexample,headlandsentrainhightidalcurrentflows.Thedegreeofwaveexposureofcoastlinesisdependentonthepredominantwinddirectionandtheamountoffetch.Marine organisms are also affected by the degree of lightpenetrationandturbidityandsalinityofthewaterinwhichthey live—the latter of which depends on the freshwaterinflowasinestuaries,forexample(Section12.1.4).

Figure 12.2 Distribution of six component habitat types found throughout UK marine waters. Subtidal and deep-sea habitat types are derived from modelling; intertidal habitat types are derived from survey data. Any white space in the map indicates where there are insufficient data to model the habitats. Source:datafromJNCCandreprintedwithpermissionfromUKMMAS(2010).

2 Section12.1.2hasbeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromBenjamins,S. (2010).

RegionalseasIntertidalrockIntertidalsedimentSubtidalrockShallowsubtidalsedimentsShelfsubtidalsedimentsDeep-seahabitats

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12.1.3 Marine FaunaCharting Progress 2 focused on the indicators of changeaffecting the major and/or more distinctive taxonomicmarine groups (thus reflecting important changes to themarine environment) where there is a significant amountofdataor thespeciesorgroupshaveconservationstatus.These include plankton, fish, seals, cetaceans, birds, andturtles.Theinvertebratefaunawhichdominatethebiomasswithinsedimentsareusefulasindicatorsofchange,butarenotsystematicallymonitoredineithertimeorspaceinUKwaters.However, inCP2avarietyof studieswereused todetermine the status of intertidal, subtidal and deep-seasedimenthabitats(seeBenjaminsetal,2010).

The plankton component of the UK marine ecosystemincludes bacteria, archaea, viruses and many protists(microbes).TheCP2assessmenthighlightstheimportanceofmicrobesforthefunctioningoftheoceans;forexample,viruses help to sustain the balance and diversity of lifebecauseoftheirinvolvementinnutrientcycling(Schroeder2010).However,thereisnotenoughinformationtobeableto provide any assessment of status or trend for the UK’smicrobial community (Schroeder 2010). Photosynthesis byphytoplanktonmakesupatleast50%ofprimaryproductioninUKmarinewaters,andplankton,alongwiththesmallermicrobialcommunity,arethebasisofthefoodsupplyforallhighertrophiclevels(Reidet al.2010).

More than 330 fish species inhabit the shelf seassurrounding the British Isles, ranging from species

commonlyfoundincoastalwatersorinestuaries,tothosepresentindeep-seaandoffshoreoceanicwaters(Pinnegaret al.2010).Fishrepresentanimportantlinkinmarinefoodwebs,bothaspredators(sometimes‘toppredators’)andaspreyformarinemammalsandseabirds,aswellassustainingimportantcommercialfisheries.

Two species of seal are found in the UK: grey seals(Halichoerus grypus)andharbour(orcommon)seals(Phoca vitulina)(Duck2010),eachofwhichmakesup36%and4%oftheworld’spopulationofthesespecies,respectively.GreysealsarefoundallaroundtheUK,however90%oftheUK’spopulation is found inScotland.Eightypercentofharbourseals are also found in Scotland. Harbour seals are alsofoundinthesouthandsouth-westofEnglandbutheretheyareverysparse(Duck2010).

InUKwatersthereare28speciesofcetacean(whales,dolphinsandporpoises),ofwhich,11appearregularly(Pinn2010).Thegreatestdiversityoccursoffthecontinentalshelf,particularlyinwaterstothenorthandwestofScotlandandinthesouth-westtowardstheBayofBiscay.Cetaceansaremobileandwide-ranging,somostoftheanimalsfoundinUK waters are part of much larger and more widespreadbiological populations (Pinn 2010). The five species mostabundantinUKwatersareconsideredtohaveafavourableconservationstatusassessment.Thestatusofafurthersixspecies is unknown due to a lack of suitable abundanceestimates.Theremaining17speciesareconsideredrareorvagrantandtheirconservationstatusinUKwaterscannotbeassessed(Pinn2010).

Table 12.2 Component and sub-component habitats assessed in the Charting Progress 2 report. Each component habitat corresponds to one or more high-level European Nature Information System (EUNIS) habitat codes. This includes a diversity of underlying, more specific, EUNIS habitat sub-component categories which are also included in the component habitat type, except where indicated.

Component Habitat Definition Sub-component Habitat

Intertidal Rock AllrockyhabitatsandbiogenicreefsbetweenHighestAstronomicalTidemarkandLowestAstronomicalTidemark

Intertidalrock

Intertidalbiogenicreefs

Intertidal Sediment Allsedimenthabitats(muds,sands,gravelsandmixedsediments)betweenHighestAstronomicalTidemarkandLowestAstronomicalTidemark

Saltmarshes

Intertidalmuds

Intertidalsandsandmuddysands

Intertidalcoarseandmixedsediment

Intertidalseagrassbeds

Subtidal Rock AllrockyhabitatsandbiogenicreefsfromLowestAstronomicalTidemarkoutwardto200mdepth(typicallytheedgeofthecontinentalshelf)

Infralittoralrock

Circalittoralrock

Subtidalbiogenicreefs

Shallow subtidal Sediment

Allsedimenthabitats(muds,sands,gravelsandmixedsediments)fromLowestAstronomicalTidemarkdowntothewave-basedepth(between50–70mdeptharoundmuchoftheUK)

Shallowmuds

Shallowsandsandmuddysands

Shallowcoarseandmixedsediment

Macrophyte-dominatedsediment(seagrasses,maerl,seaweeds)

Shelf Subtidal Sediment

Allsedimentaryhabitats(muds,sands,gravelsandmixedsediments)fromthewave-basedepthoutwardto200mdepth(typicallytheedgeofthecontinentalshelf)

Shelfmuds

Shelfsandsandmuddysands

Shelfcoarseandmixedsediment

Deep-sea Habitats Allhabitatsoccurringinwatersdeeperthan200mdepth(typicallybeyondtheedgeofthecontinentalshelf)

Deep-searock

Deep-seabioherms

Deep-seasediments

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The UK’s marine environment supports internationallyimportantnumbersofbirds.Morethan100speciesregularlyuse the marine areas of the UK. The majority of thesespecies are waterbirds, such as waders, herons, egrets,ducks,geese,swans,diversandgrebes,andseabirds,suchaspetrels,gannets,cormorants,skuas,gulls,ternsandauks(Mitchell2010).Mostoftheevidenceofstatusandtrendsinbirds iscollectednear to land i.e. inestuariesandcoastalareas.Lessisknownaboutbirdpopulationsthatdonotlivein the intertidalzoneorclose inshoreduetodifficulties ingatheringdatainoffshoreareas(Mitchell2010).

The leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is themost common of the four turtles occasionally reported inUK waters (Marubini 2010). It is a wide-ranging species,migrating throughout the Atlantic; UK waters representa small peripheral part of its summer foraging habitat(Marubini2010).Thereiscurrentlynotenoughevidencetobeabletoassesspopulationtrends.

12.1.4 Linkages with other UK National Ecosystem Assessment HabitatsSpecific marine habitats occur at the interface withfreshwater (river) and coastal habitats. In these marinehabitats,usuallyestuaries,sealochsorsometimeslagoons,the salinity of the water can be reduced and spatially ortemporallyvariabledependingontheamountoffreshwaterinflow,thephysicalstructureoftheterrestrialboundary,andtheextentoftidalinflowfromthesea.

The marine ecosystem, especially coastal estuarine,sea loch and coastal shelf habitats, directly interacts withterrestrial habitats, particularly coastal margins (Chapter11), coastal and estuarine urban habitats and freshwater(through runoff into estuaries and coasts). The divisionbetween coastal margin habitats and marine habitats isusuallyratherindistinct.Forexample,manycoastalmarginhabitats are inundated with saline water during extremeweatherevents.

Thereisalsoafreshwatercatchmenttocoastconnectionbetweenalloftheterrestrialhabitatsthatarefurtherinlandandthemarinehabitat,viathefreshwaterflowsthatlinkthem.

12.2 Trends and Changes in Marine HabitatsThissectionincludesadiscussionofthetrendsandchangesincomponenthabitats (extentandstatus) included in thisassessmentandtheirassociatedfauna.Themajordriversofchangearealsoidentified.

12.2.1 Intertidal Rock3 Although Intertidal Rock habitats are generally in goodcondition, the harvesting of edible shellfish and theoccurrence of non-native species are adversely affectingsome local communities. In addition, species composition

of intertidal rocky communities in the Channel and CelticSeas is already impacted by warmer waters. Recordedoccurrences of non-native species are increasing aroundtheUKcoastline, but the impactsonnative communitiesare still poorly understood. The pressures on this habitathaveincreasedoverthelasttenyears(Box 12.1).

12.2.2 Intertidal SedimentsHumanpressureshaveadverselyaffectedmoderatetolargeareasofIntertidalSedimenthabitats,notablymudflatsandsaltmarshes,inmostoftheUK’sseasapartfromnorthernand western Scotland. Historical land-claim from thesea and the construction of coastal defences and otherstructureshavecausedwidespreadhabitatloss,particularlyin England. Such structures also affect these habitats bychangingwatercurrentpatternsandsedimentdistribution.IntheSouthernNorthSeaandEasternChannel,thespreadofnon-nativespecies,suchascommoncordgrass(Spartina anglica),has led tochanges insaltmarshesandmudflats.Althoughwaterqualitylevelshaveimprovedoverall,therearestillsomesmall inshoreareas(particularlywithintheNorth Sea and Irish Sea) where pollution and nutrientenrichmentareaproblem.Beachlitterlevelsremainhighand have been increasing in almost all areas except theeasternEnglishChannel.Thepressureonthishabitathasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

12.2.3 Subtidal Rock and Other Hard SubstrataOverall,onlylimitedareasofsubtidalrockyhabitatappearto be directly impacted by human activity. Some have,however, been permanently damaged by mobile fishinggear such as bottom trawling. This has had a particularimpact on fragile biogenic reefs such as horse musselbeds. Locally, particularly near some large ports aroundEngland and Wales, subtidal rocky habitat has also beenlostbecauseofconstruction,coastalinfrastructureorthedisposalofdredgedmaterials.Thepressureonthishabitathasnotchangedoverthelasttenyears.

12.2.4 Shallow and Shelf Subtidal SedimentsInmostregions,largeareasofsubtidalsedimentshavebeenadverselyaffectedbymobilefishinggears,suchasbottomtrawlsanddredges,buttherehavebeenlesssevereimpactsontheScottishContinentalShelfandtheEasternChannel.Locally, the extraction of aggregates has altered theseabedintheEasternChannel,SouthernNorthSea,BristolChannelandIrishSea.Whilethereisincreasingdemandformarineaggregate,theareaimpactedisrelativelysmall,andislikelytoremainso.Thereisalsopressurefromwindfarmdevelopments,particularlyonshallowsandbanks,whichislikelytoincreaseinthefuture.Someestuariesandsubtidalcoastal habitats along the south coast of England and inthe Irish Sea continue to experience nutrient enrichmentandhazardoussubstancespollution.Inmostregions,non-nativespeciesarespreadinginthesubtidalcoastalareas.The picture on pressures for these habitats over the last

3 Sections12.2.1–12.2.5havebeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromBenjamins,S. (2010).

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ten years is different across the regions; in general, therehasbeen improvement in thesouthernNorthSea,but formostotherregions,therehasbeennochangeorthereisnotenoughevidencetoassignatrend.

12.2.5 Deep-sea HabitatsDeep-seahabitatsaresimilar toothersubtidalhabitats intheirvulnerability to the impactsofsome typesofmobilefishing gears. Although this represents the main pressureonthesehabitats,theircurrentstatusvariesbyregion,withlargeareasofhabitatimpactedintheScottishContinentalShelf area and only limited areas known to be impactedfurther offshore. The fishing pressure on this habitat hasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

12.2.6 Plankton4

Overthepasttwodecades,therehasbeenalargeincreaseinphytoplanktonbiomass inoffshorewaters around, andto the west of, the British Isles. There have been largechanges (a ‘regime shift’) in the plankton community inUKwatersparticularly intheNorthSea.Inrecentstudies,climatic variability and water transparency have beenshown to be more important than nutrient concentrationtophytoplanktonproductionatoffshoreregionalscales,atleast for theNorthSea.Warmingwaterhascausedmany

phytoplanktontaxatochangetheirseasonality(i.e.springbloomsareoccurringearlier),resultingintheiravailabilityasseasonalfoodforzooplanktonandfishlarvaebeingoutofsynchrony(Figure 12.3).Sincethe1950s,theabundanceof total copepods has reduced considerably in UK waterswithimplicationsforthefishthatfeedonthem.Therehasalso been a marked shift from a cold boreal communitydominatedbyplanktonthatspendalltheirtimeinthewatercolumn,toonecharacterisedbywarmtemperatespecies.Sincethemid-1980s,therehasbeenalargeincreaseintheabundanceofplanktonic larvaeofbenthicanimals in theNorthSea,butthecausesarenotclear.

Overthelast50years,therehasbeenaprogressiveshiftnorthward in warmer water zooplankton and a retreat tothenorthofcolderwaterspecies.Therelativeproportionsofthecoldwaterindicatorcopepod(Calanus finmarchicus)anditswarmerwatersisterspecies(C.helgolandicus), whichissaidtohavelowernutritionalvalue, haveshownasimilarnorthward movement. The increasing sea temperaturesincethe1980sisthekeydriverlinkedtothesechanges.

12.2.7 Fish5 The CP2 report provides an integrated assessment of thestatus of fish populations over the last 20 years, with aspecificfocusonthepastfiveyears,usingarangeofdata

Comparisonofhistoricandpresentdistributionandabundanceofover60indicatorspecieshasprovidedevidenceofsomeofthefastestchangesintheabundance,rangeandpopulationstructuresofspeciesglobally,andrelatedthesechangestorecentrapidclimaticwarming.Inparticular,severalsouthernspeciesofwarmwaterintertidalinvertebratesandmacroalgaehaveconsiderablyextendedtheirrangenorthwardalongtheWelshandScottishcoastlines,andeastwardalongtheEnglishChannel.Northerncoldwaterspecies,meanwhile,haveshownamodestcontractioninrange,andsignificantdeclinesinabundance,atsitesclosetotheirsouthernlimitsduringthesameperiod(Mieszkowskaet al.2006,Hawkinset al.2008).Contractionsandexpansionsofgeographicrangeedgesduetoglobalenvironmentalchangeareresultinginspeciesbothbeinglostfrom,andintroducedto,assemblages.SuchchangesareinitiallybeingrecordedattheperipheryofthegeographicrangesinBritainwhereorganismsareoftenalreadyexperiencingtemperaturesclosetotheirthermallimits.However,MarClimdatahasalsoidentifiedlocalandregionalheterogeneitywithinthegeographicrangeofseveralspecies,asevidencedbyenvironmentalhotspotsorphysical/hydrographicbarriersoccurringinsidethedistributionallimitsofsessileinvertebrates.

Laboratoryandfieldexperimentshaveshownthatmanyofthechangesinthesouthernspecieshaveoccurredasaresultofincreasedreproductiveoutputandjuvenilesurvivalclosetonorthernrangeedgesinresponsetoincreasedwarming,particularlyshorter,milderwinters(Herbertet al.2007;Mieszkowskaet al.2006,2007).ThisdatahasalsohighlightedtheroleoftheNorthAtlanticOscillation(NAO)—anindexdescribinglarge-scaleclimaticchanges—inlarvaltransportandsubsequentrecruitmentsuccess.DispersalofintertidalinvertebratelarvaeisprimarilyinfluencedbyNAO-inducedvariabilityinoceaniccirculation,whereasrecruitmentismainlyimpactedbyatmosphericeffects(Broitmanet al.2008).Annualmonitoringatapproximately150keysitesaroundtheBritishcoastlinehascontinuedsincethecompletionoftheMarClimreport.Thetime-seriesdatashowscontinuedtemperature-

Figure 1 Lower shore at Mothecombe. Photo courtesy of Nova Mieszkowska, Marine Biological Association.

inducedchangesinintertidalrockycommunities(anexampleofwhichisdisplayedinFigure 1),includingincreasedabundanceofnon-nativespecies,suchasthePacificoyster(Crassostrea gigas),theincreaseinwhichhasresultedindeclinesinlocalbiodiversityinregionswhereithasestablishednaturalpopulations.Inaddition,theroleofartificialhardstructures(e.g.forcoastaldefence)assteppingstonesallowingtheexpansionofspecieslinkedtorockhabitatshasbeenhighlighted(Herbertet al.2007;Moschellaet al.2005).Allofthesefactorsinfluencetheoutcomesofspecies’interactionsincludingcompetition,facilitationandpredation,ultimatelyalteringthestructureofcommunitiesandecosystemprocesseswithinBritishintertidalecosystems(Colemanet al.2006;Poloczanskaet al.2008;Burrowset al.2009).

Box 12.1 Intertidal rocky shore change: the MarClim Project (an excerpt from Charting Progress 2).

4 Section12.2.6hasbeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromReid&Edwards (2010).5 Section12.2.7hasbeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromPinnegaret al.(2010).

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sources from non-commercial monitoring programmes. Ithasshown improvementssince thefirstChartingProgressreport (Defra 2005). It is more challenging to comparecurrentstateandtrendswithrespecttohistoricalconditions(fish communities and populations from 50, or 100 to 120yearsago,beforetheonsetofindustrialisedsteamtrawling)asonlypiecemealdataexists.

Thediversityandoverallabundanceofdemersal(bottom-dwelling) fish have improved around the UK during thepastfiveyears.Thisprobablyreflectsadecreaseinfishing,although life-history traits, such as average size and age-at-maturity,typicallyshowlittleornochangeandseemtorespondmoreslowlytoreductionsinhumanpressures.Thisreduction infisheriespressurehasbeen largelyassociatedwith a combination of EU controls on Total AllowableCatches and the large-scale decommissioning of fishingvesselsintheUK.

However,demersalfishpopulationsare,today,severelydepletedwhencomparedwiththoseof50or100yearsago,and there has been a long-term trend in overexploitationimpacting fish communities as a whole. Interpretationof the limited data that exists for earlier periods suggests

that, although fish are smaller on average than previouslyreported,speciesdiversitymayhaveincreasedinsomeareasof the UK compared to historic data. The Southern NorthSea,theWesternChannelandCelticSeaareconsideredtohaveshownthemostdeteriorationfromhistoricdata(1880to1900)duetotheimpactoffishing.AllotherareasoftheUKhaveshownalessseveredeterioration,butfishingisstillacting as the main pressure and driver of change.Surveysthroughout the UK have revealed a gradual increase inestuarinefishdiversityandoverallnumbers,probablylinkedto the fact that many estuaries have become significantlycleanerinrecentyears.Thenumbersofadultsalmon(Salmo salar)andsea trout (Salmo trutta) returning to rivershaveincreased on many rivers, though there have also beendeclinesinanumberofrivers.Thenumberofeel(Anguilla anguilla) juveniles has fallen in many areas, reflecting anAtlantic-widedownturninthenumbersofelversreturningtorivers.Causesofthisdeclineareunclear,butsuggestionsinclude changes in oceanic conditions, overexploitation,freshwater habitat destruction, contaminants and theintroductionoftheparasiteAnguillicola crassus fromAsia.

Although the general situation for most estuarine andmarinefishcommunitiesseemstohaveimprovedinrecentyears,certainvulnerablefishhavecontinuedtodeteriorate.This includes many deep-water fish species, sharks, raysandskates,andtransitional/diadromousspeciesthatmovebetweenfresh-andsaltwater,suchastheEuropeaneelandsturgeon.

Commercial fisheries continue to exert a significantpressureontargetandnon-targetfishpopulations,butthereareimprovementsintheproportionofstocksbeingharvestedsustainably. However, as the seas become busier, otheranthropogenic pressures are also becoming increasinglyapparent.Theseincludetheimpactofnewon-andoffshoreinfrastructuresuchas: thereleaseofendocrine-disruptingsubstances from sewage works; pesticides and plasticsmanufacturing; theextractionofsandandgravel; the lossof coastal habitats; and the extraction of water from, oralterationofriverflowsin,estuaries.Climatechangeisalsobeginningtohaveadetectableimpactonfishpopulations,withmarkedchangesindistribution,thetimingofmigration,overallreproductiveoutput(recruitment)andgrowthrates.

12.2.8 Seals6

After decades of increase, total grey seal pup productionnow appears to be levelling off in the UK and is rising atonlyasmallnumberofcolonies.Thisreductionintherateofincreaseisprobablybecauseofdensitydependentfactorsaffectingthepopulationasawhole,forexample,competitionforspaceandfood.Incontrast,harboursealnumbershavedramaticallydeclinedbymorethan50%inShetland,OrkneyandtheeastcoastofScotlandsince2001.Therehasbeenasmallerdecline intheOuterHebrides,butnumbersonthewestcoastofScotlandhaveremainedrelativelystable.Thecauses of these declines are not yet known. Contributingfactorscouldbeeithernatural,anthropogenic,orboth,andinclude: competition with grey seals, predation by killerwhales(intheNorthernIsles),unregulatedshooting(inlocal

Figure 12.3 Plankton greenness determined from Continuous Plankton Recorder data in a) the Western Channel and Celtic Seas, and b) the North Sea. Source:dataprovidedbyDavidJohns,SirAlisterHardyFoundationforOceanScience(SAHFOS)(2010).

6 Section12.2.8hasbeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromDuck(2010).

a) the Western Channel and Celtic Seas

b) the North Sea

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areas), declines in important prey species (such as sandeels)anddisease(PhocineDistemperVirusoutbreaks).Asacharismaticspecies,harboursealsareoftenhighlyvalued,for example, by the local tourist industry. Therefore, evenwhen populations are very small such as in the southernpartofEngland,pressureontheseindividualsisconsideredsignificant.

12.2.9 Cetaceans7

Abundance estimates exist for a few cetacean speciesover a large geographic and temporal scale, whilst forotherspeciesthe information isrestrictedtoamore local,limited geographic scale. Harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), white-beaked dolphin (Lagenorhynchus albirostris), minke whale(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) and fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus)arethefivemostabundantcetaceanspeciesinUKwaters.TheirabundanceinNorthSeaandadjacentwatershas not changed and they, therefore, have a favourableconservationstatusassessment.Thestatusofwhite-sideddolphin(Lagenorhynchus acutus),Risso’sdolphin(Grampus griseus), short-beaked common dolphin (Delphinus delphis),killerwhale(Orcinus orca),spermwhale(Physeter macrocephalus) and long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) is unknown due to a lack of suitable abundanceestimates.OtherspeciesinUKwatersareconsideredtoberareorvagrant, so theirconservationstatus inUKwaterscannotbeassessed.

12.2.10 Birds8

SeabirdandwaterbirdpopulationsintheUKhaveincreasedinsizeoverthelastcenturyasadirectresultof increasedprotectionfromhuntingandpersecutionintheUK.Butsincearoundthemid-1990s,declinesinnumbersofbothwinteringwaterbirdsandbreeding seabirds indicate thatpressure isonceagainbeingexertedonmarinebirdpopulations.

12.2.10.1 SeabirdsThenumberofseabirdsbreedingintheUKincreasedfromaround4.5million inthe late1960sto7millionbytheendofthe1990s.Between2000and2008(JNCC2009),thetotalnumber of breeding seabirds decreased by around 9%,although changes in breeding numbers have varied greatlybetweenindividualspecies.OftheseabirdspeciesbreedingintheUK,onlynortherngannet(Morus bassanus)andgreatskua(Stercorarius skua) sustained a positive trend in populationsizesince1969whencomprehensivemonitoringofbreedingnumbers began. Conversely, herring gull (Larus argentatus)androseatetern(Sterna dougallii)numbershavedeclinedthemostsince1969:byapproximately70%and90%respectively.In2004,2005and2007,themeanbreedingsuccessofasampleof21seabirdspecieswasatitslowestlevelssincemonitoringbeganinthemid-1980s.Thesefallsinbreedingsuccesshavebeenmostacuteinblack-leggedkittiwakes(Rissa tridactyla)andotherspecies,suchascommonguillemot(Uria aalge),thatrelyonsandeels.Thereisstrongevidencethatclimate-drivenchangesinthefoodchainhavehadacutenegativeimpacts

onseabirdbreedingsuccess,particularlyonBritain’sNorthSea coast. However, it is important to note that, althoughthe impact of climate change on seabirds is considered tobe high, much of the evidence for this is correlative ratherthandemonstrablycausal.Other impactsaffectingseabirdsincludefisheriesreducingsandeelandotherkeypreyspeciesavailabilityandquality,andreducingtheirdiscards,whichispotentially linked to the reduced abundance of scavengingspecies such as great skua and northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis). The introduction of non-indigenous species (i.e.brownratsandminkonoffshoreislandsthatpreyonground-nestingseabirdssuchasstorm-petrelsandAtlanticpuffins)has caused considerable damage to colonies in the past.However,morerecentcontrolmeasureshaveledtoincreasesinnumbersandbreedingsuccessatsomeseabirdcolonies,andtothecompleterecoveryofothers(e.g.Craik1997,1998).

Duetodifficultiesingatheringdatainoffshoreareas,lessis known about seabird populations outside the breedingseasonwhentheyspendthemajorityoftheir timeoffshoreand are not tied to particular intertidal or inshore coastallocations.

12.2.10.2 WaterbirdsAverage numbers of waterbirds wintering in, or migratingthrough,marineareasintheUKdoubledbetweenthemid-1970s and the mid-1990s (Chapter 9). Since then, averagenumbershavedeclinedslightly,but in thewinterof2006–2007,theywerestill85%higherthaninthemid-1970swhencoordinated monitoring began. However, some species ofdiving duck and estuarine wader have recently declinedmore substantially: in 2006–2007 there were 43% fewergoldeneye(Bucephala clangula),54%fewerdunlin (Calidris alpina)and28%fewerbar-tailedgodwit(Limosa lapponica)thanin1975–1976.

Five pressures were identified as being the mostsignificant for UK waterbird populations: contaminationby hazardous substances (waterbirds such as seaduck,divers and grebes have a low resistance to the effects ofcontamination by surface pollutants like oil); removalof species (leading to reduced food availability); habitatdamage;habitat loss;andclimatechange.Climatechangemayalreadybecontributingtorecentdeclinesinnumbersof some species, including bar-tailed godwit, grey plover(Pluvialis squatarola), dunlinand ringedplover (Charadrius hiaticula), by encouraging a north-eastwards shift in theirdistribution.Asa result,morebirdsarenowwinteringonthe east coast of Britain and fewer birds are wintering inthe south-west.Totalnumbersofwaderswintering in theUKmaybestartingtodeclineasmorebirdsmoveeastandspendwinteralongthecoastsofmainlandEurope.Theotherimpacts described are also thought to be contributing tochangesinnumbersanddistributionsofwaterbirds.Visualdisturbance from offshore renewable energy developmentcouldleadtothelossofforaginghabitatforinshorefeeders,suchasterns,andislikelytoincreaseinthefutureastheUKand devolved governments strive to meet their targets forrenewableenergyproduction(Mitchellet al.2010).

7 Section12.2.9hasbeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromPinn(2010).8 Section12.2.10hasbeenreproduced(withsomeminormodification)withpermissionfromMitchell(2010).

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12.2.11 Summary of Pressures Causing Change in Marine Habitats and their BiodiversityClimate change is rapidly altering species distribution, afactwhichisbecomingparticularlyevidentinthosemarinecommunities and populations where long-term data isavailable:coastalrockyintertidalspecies,planktonandfish.These changes have been related to recent rapid climaticwarming, with southern species extending their rangenorthward and northern cold water species undergoinga modest contraction in range, and significant declines inabundance, at sites close to their southern limits. Climatechangewillalso facilitateoutbreaksofnon-nativespeciesin the futureanddifferentspecies-specific ratesofchangearealreadydrivingalterationsofcommunitystructureandfunction.

Human activities that have a physical impact onthe seafloor (e.g. trawl fisheries, aggregate extraction,construction of offshore windfarm developments, coastaldefences,portsandcoastaldevelopments)adverselyaffectthe species and communities (benthos) which live on theseabed.Usuallytheimpactsarequitelocalised,butseabedtrawlfishingactivityisthemostwidespreadactivityandhasthegreatestimpactofallhumanactivities.

Thereisanincreaseanddiversificationofhumanactivityin the marine environment which is creating additionalpressures on all shelf sea, coastal and estuarine habitats.These include marine renewable energy development,expansioninrecreationandleisureactivities,portactivitiesandaggregateextraction,aswellas land reclamationandurbandevelopmentat thecoast.Humancontaminationofmarinewaterswithhazardoussubstanceshasbeenreducedthrough improvements in sewage treatment infrastructureand reductions in industrial effluent, but there are nowconcernsaboutemergingenvironmentalcontaminantsand

chemicals, such as nano-particles and pharmaceuticals,which pass through sewage treatment (Readman 2006;Guitart&Readman2010).

12.3 Ecosystem Goods and Services Provided by Marine Habitats for Human Well-beingMarinehabitatsand theirdiversityoforganismsprovideawide range of ecosystem goods, services and benefits ofsignificant value to the UK’s society (Figure 12.4). Thesebenefitsinclude:foodsuchasfishandshellfish,thereductionofclimatestressby regulatingcarbonandotherbiogases;geneticresourcesforaquaculture;industrialinputsforbluebiotechnology such as biocatalysts, natural medicines;fertiliser (seaweed); coastal protection; waste breakdownand detoxification leading to pollution control, wasteremovalandwastedegradation;diseaseandpest control;tourism, leisure and recreation opportunities; a focus forengagement with the natural environment; physical andmental health benefits; and cultural heritage and learningexperiences.Energyprovisionislikelytobeanincreasinglyimportant marine ecosystem service. The technology forenergy extraction from the physical component of marinehabitats as wave and tidal power is being developed andbiofuelsfrommacroandmicroalgaearelikelytobeprovidedby their biomass in the near future. The benefits accruedirectlytocoastaldwellersandvisitors,andalsoindirectly

Figure 12.4 Examples of the goods, services and benefits from Marine habitats provided to human well-being. Source:adaptedfromHiscocket al.(2006)andBeaumontet al.(2006),drawingsbyJackSewellandTimHolleyman.

PROVISIONING

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tomuchoftheUK’ssociety.Thefollowingsectionsexploreeachoftheseservices,andthebenefitsthatsocietyobtainsfromthem,bothwithintheUKandoverseas.

12.3.1 Provisioning ServicesTheprovisioningservices(Chapter15)providedbyUKseas,suchasfinfishandshellfishstocks,seaweedandotherrawmaterials,benefitpeoplebothwithintheUKandabroad.Thebenefitsinclude:fishandshellfishforconsumptionbothfromwildcaptureandaquaculture;fishmealandfishoilasinputsforaquacultureand food supplements; algaeand seaweedas inputs intopharmaceuticalsandbiofuels;andbaitusedduringseaangling.Although the industrybuiltaround theprovisioningoffishisdeclininginimportanceintermsofitscontribution toGrossDomesticProduct, it still remainsanimportant socio-economic activity in coastal regions. ThisisespeciallysoinremotecoastalcommunitiesinScotland,Walesandsouth-westEnglandwhereitprovidesemploymentthrough fishing, aquaculture farms, fish processing, andassociatedindustriessuchasboatbuildingandmaintenance,gear supply, markets and transportation. This sectionfocusesontrendsinproductionandconsumptionoffisheriesresourcesfromtheUK’smarinehabitats.

Official statistics for catch landings by UK and foreignvesselsintotheUKareusedasaproxyforthevolumeandvalueoftheprovisionoffishforconsumption.Itisimportantto note that, although these statistics are incompleteestimates of the total provisioning services provided bymarine habitats in UK waters, alternative technology nowavailablemayimprovefutureestimates(Box 12.2).

Not all fishingvessels registered in theUKareobligedto land all their UK catch in theUK, and similarly vesselsregisteredinothercountriescanlandsomeoftheirnon-UKcatchintheUKshouldtheychoosetodoso.TheSeaAroundUsproject estimates thatmore than75%of thevolumeoffish caught in UK seas in 2006 was captured by non-UKvessels, notably by French, Danish, Norwegian and Dutchfishing fleets. It is also difficult to relate specific landingsto the actual location where they were caught. Currently,technologyallowscatches tobeattributed toareasof theoceans, usually referred to as ICES (International CouncilfortheExplorationoftheSea)rectangles(0.5°Latitudex1°Longitude),butthishasnotalwaysbeenthecaseandmanyof therectangles includebothUKandnon-UKwaters.Forexample,UKvessels catch fish from thewestofScotland,Irish Sea, Norwegian Coast, Bear Island and Spitzbergen,Faroe Islands, North Sea, Rockall, Barents Sea, south andwest of Ireland, English Channel, Bristol Channel, Bay ofBiscay,eastandwestofGreenland,andLabrador,amongstother areas. The most important areas are the west ofScotland, Irish Sea, North Sea, south and west of Ireland,Celtic Sea and the English Channel. Finally, there is nodefined relationship between landings of fish by UK boatsand consumption of fish by UK citizens, so the benefitsobtained fromfishconsumptioncaughtbyUKand foreignvessels landing into UK waters must be assumed to beobtainedbothwithintheUKandbytheUK’sexportmarkets(e.g.Netherlands,FranceandRussia).

The remainderof this sectiondrawsonhistoricaldatacollatedfromtheUKSeaFisheriesStatistics.Unfortunately,

Box 12.2 Using position data and catch value to illustrate spatial dimension of catch value. An alternative approach to quantifying and valuing food provisioning from UK seas is to use spatial effort data based on satellite-derived Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) position data of vessels over 15 m, and plot this together with catch value as shown in Figure 1 (Saunders et al. 2010). At present, this data is only available for 2004 to 2007 and does not distinguish between species caught. Nevertheless, it provides a highly resolved spatial dimension to catch data and demonstrates the patchy nature of catch value by area. It also illustrates the importance of coastal areas around the mainland and offshore islands; these areas tend to have the highest value, reflecting the dominance of shellfisheries for lobster, crabs, nephrops (scampi or langoustine) and scallops. Other areas of value include the shelf-edge of northern Scotland and the northern half of the North Sea; demersal species are particularly important targets for the Scottish fleet in these areas, as are nephrops.

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Figure 1 Spatial distribution of the annual mean value of all UK fish landings in 2004–2007 based on VMS position data and ICES rectangle data on catch value for VMS vessels. Source:mapreproducedwithpermissionfromDunstone(2008).

itisdifficulttoattributethisdatainastrictsensetomarineecosystemsthatliewithintheboundariesoftheUK,butitiscurrentlythebestdataavailableforthetimeperiodcoveredbytheUKNationalEcosystemAssessment(UKNEA).

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12.3.1.1 ProductionFinfish and shellfish from marine ecosystems. Landingsof fish are divided into three separate fisheries statisticscategories:1)demersalfishspecieswhichliveonorneartheseabedincludingcod,haddock,plaice,whiting,pollack,andsoles;2)pelagicfishspecies,suchasherringandmackerel,which are typically found in mid and upper waters; and3) shellfish including scallops, oysters, mussels, cockles,octopus,squid,cuttlefish,prawns,crabs,andlobsters.

Totallandingsofdemersal,pelagicandshellfishspeciescombined into the UK increased from 1.1 million tonnesperyearin1938to1.2milliontonnesperyearin1948,afterwhich theydeclinedsteadily to0.5million tonnes in2000(MMO2010).Thereafter,totallandingshaveremainedstable(Figure 12.5). The value of total landings on the otherhand,increasedrapidlyfromaround£17millionin1938to£464millionin1990,andhasshownagradualincreasesincethen.However,ifthesefiguresareadjustedusingtheRetailPrice Index (RPI) to be equivalent to 2008 values (Figure 12.5), the total value of the fish catch shows a similardeclinetothatofvolumecaught.Thedeclineinlandingshasnotbeenconsistentacrossalllandingcategories.Landingsof demersal and pelagic species have declined over time,whilelandingsforshellfishincreasedfrom34,090tonnesin1966 to 144,986 tonnes in 2008 (Figure 12.6a). Landingsofshellfishhavenowovertakenbothdemersalandpelagicspeciesintermsofvalue(Figure 12.6b),buttheyremainthe smallest in terms of volume. Demersal species stillconstitutethelargestproportionoftotallandings,buttheyaremuchreducedsincetheSecondWorldWar(WWII)asaresultofdecliningstocksizes,reducedquotasandimposedfishing effort reductions in the North Sea, eastern EnglishChannel,westofScotlandandIrishSea.

From1956to2008therehavebeendeclinesinlandingsofdemersalandpelagicfinfishandshellfishinallregionsoftheUK(Figure 12.7a),butdeclineshavebeenmostdramaticinEnglandandWales.Pelagiclandingshaveshowninstabilityacross the countries throughout the whole of this period(Figure 12.7b),whileshellfishlandingshaveincreasedforall(Figure 12.7c).

Thetrendsindemersalandpelagicfinfishlandingscanbe attributed to a number of factors including: decliningfishstocksduetofishingandenvironmentalchange;catchquotas;restrictionsonthenumberofdaysallowedatsea;ashift to shellfishharvesting;and latterly,decommissioningschemesthathaveseenreductionsinthesizeoftheoverallfishingfleet.

Forcertainspecies,suchascodandherring,therehavebeen substantial declines in landings during this periodfollowingstockcrashes.ReportingonthemackerelfisheryintheEnglishChannelandCelticSea,LockwoodandJohnson(1976) state that between 1926 and 1966 mackerel catchfluctuatedbetween12,000and40,000tonnes;by1970thishadincreasedto60,000tonnes,andin1975itwasmorethan300,000tonnes.TheyreportthatsimilarincreaseswereseenintheNorthSea.Themackerelcatchhassincedeclinedand,in2008,approximately90,000tonneswereharvested(MMO2010). The North Sea herring fishery has also had mixedfortunes;overfishingsinceWWIIledtoastockcollapseandacompletemoratoriumonherringfishingbetween1978and

Figure 12.5 Landings into the UK by UK and foreign vessels: 1938 to 2008 adjusted to 2008 prices using the Retail Price Index. Source:dataextractedfromMMO(2010).

Figure 12.6 Landings into the UK by UK and foreign vessels from 1956 to 2008 by a) live weight equivalent, and b) value of three categories of landings: demersal, pelagic and shellfish. Values were adjusted to 2008 prices using Retail Price Index. Source:extractedfromMMO(2010).

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early 1990s toaround50% in2008 (Armstrong&Holmes2010). The proportion of stocks with full reproductivecapacity(whenspawningstockbiomassisat,orabove,theICES-defined precautionary reference point at the start ofeachyear)declineduntilthelate1990s,butsince2000,hasstarted to increaseagain.However, themajorityofstockscontinuetobefishedatrateswellabovethevaluesexpectedtoprovidethehighestlong-termyield(Saunders2010).

Tofullyunderstandtheimportanceoffoodprovisioningservices from the marine environment, it is necessary toconsidertheeffortexpendedincatchingthefishandothersecondaryservicesassociatedwithmarinefishing.In1948,therewere39,380regularfishermenintheUK,by2008,thisnumber had fallen to 10,242 (Figure 12.8). England andWaleshave constantlyhad thehighestnumberof regularfishermen compared to Scotland and Northern Ireland.ThecapacityoftheScottishfleet,however,ismuchgreaterthan that of the English, Welsh and Northern Irish fleets(Table 12.3),reflectingthegreaterproportionofboatsover10m-longintheScottishfleet.

Inrecentyears,therehasbeenadeclineinfishingeffortinthedemersalwhitefishfleetinthecodrecoveryzones.The

1982.Herringbiomasshassubsequentlyrecoveredandthefisheryisnowconsideredtobewithinsafebiologicallimits(Pinnegaret al.2006).

Shellfish landings, especially of scallops and Norwaylobster (Nephrops species),have increasedsince1966.Theincreaseinscallopfishingispartlyduetostringentquotasbeingplacedondemersalandpelagicfishspecies,butalsotheeasebywhichboatsfittedfordemersaltrawlingcanbeconvertedtoactivitiessuchasscallopdredging.Inaddition,most shellfish species are not under quota restrictions(quotasareonlyinplaceforNephropsspeciesandnorthernprawn Pandalus borealis).

The recorded declines in landings do not necessarilyreflect the size of the fish stocks in UK waters. Out of 18indicator finfish stocks in UK waters, the proportion ofstocksbeingharvestedsustainablyrosefrom5–15%inthe

Figure 12.7 Landings (live weight equivalent in tonnes) of a) demersals (1956 to 2008), b) pelagics (1956 to 2008), and c) shellfish (1966 to 2008) into England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland by UK vessels and by foreign vessels into the UK. Source:extractedfromMMO(2010).

England and WalesScotlandNorthern IrelandForeign vessels

600

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Figure 12.8 Changes in total number of a) regular and b) part-time fishermen for each nation of the UK. No data in England and Wales during 1989 to 1993. Source:dataextractedfromMMO(2010).*Prior to 1952 figures were based on information supplied by the Registrar General of Shipping and Seamen. Since 1952 figures have been supplied by the District Fishery Officers of Defra. † From 1966 these figures exclude ‘hobby’ fishermen, i.e. fishermen who do not fish commercially. The corresponding figures for Scotland and Northern Ireland have never included ‘hobby’ fishermen. ‡ Includes 1986 figures for Newlyn and Plymouth. ¶ The apparent increase in fishermen in Scotland reflected the licensing of 10 m and under vessels; when more information became available on the numbers of such active vessels.

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UKfleethasbeenheavilyalteredbybothdecommissioningand vessels switching from demersal fish to Nephropsfishing.Restrictionsonthenumberofdaysallowedatsea,introducedbytheScottishParliamentin2003fortheNorthSeaandIrishSeaandwestofScotlandcodrecoveryzones,are also limiting the number of fishing days of certainsegments of the UK fleet. In addition, decommissioningschemesrunbetween1997and2007haveledtoareductionin fleet size which has resulted in a 12% decrease in fishlanded.Asaconsequenceoffleetcontraction,theScottishdemersal fleet is now considered to be in line with catchopportunity(Baxteret al.2008).

Anumberofsecondaryservicesarealsosupportedbytheprovisionof fish,bothupanddown the supply chain.The fishing industry is dependent upon boat builders andrepairers, gear merchants, and suppliers of boxes andice, amongst other items. At the same time, the industrysuppliesnumerousfishprocessorsandfoodindustries,andthe UK has around 480 fish processing sites that employaround 15,000 people (Seafish 2009). Furthermore, theseafoodservicesectorcoversa rangeofoutlets includingfishandchipsshops,andhotelsandrestaurants,andhence,is beneficial tomillionsofworkersand consumers.Thereare also around 280 ports, harbours and creeks aroundthe UK where finfish and shellfish are landed. The majorfishingportsintheUKintermsofvalueoffishlandedarePeterhead, Fraserburgh and Lerwick, (all in Scotland).In 2005, the combined employment level in the catching,processing and aquaculture sector in the UK was 31,633people, representing 3.5% of the total employment inall maritime industries in the UK, including leisure andrecreation(Pugh2008).

Fishing impacts on the marine environment. Theremoval of fish from marine environments has a numberof impacts on marine ecosystems which may affect thedelivery of other ecosystem services. Food web changesoccurwhentheabundanceofaspeciesisseverelyreduced.Physical impacts are also common, especially from theuse of bottom-trawls and dredging methods. The impactsofbeamanddemersal trawlsonbenthiccommunitiesarewellunderstood.Theyareknowntoaffectthebiomassandproductionofbenthicinvertebratecommunities(Jennings&Kaiser1998)whicharean important foodsourceofmanycommercially exploited fish species. Disturbance of thesebenthic communities may also interfere with supportingecosystemservicessuchasnutrientcycling(Widdicombeet al.2004).

Aquaculture. Aquacultureisthefarmingorculturingofaquatic organisms (fish, molluscs, crustaceans and algae)using techniques designed to increase the production ofthe organisms in question , for example, through regularstocking,feedingandprotectionfrompredators(ONS2007).Themajorityofmarineaquaculture intheUKisrelatedtosalmonandshellfish(includingmussels,oysters,clamsandscallops)farming.Farmingofseaweedisagrowingpartofthissectoralthoughthereisverylittleinformationaboutitslikelyfutureimportanceorimpact.

Ascatchesofwildfishhavedeclinedover time,so thedemand for farmed fish has increased. The aquaculturesectorintheUKhasincreaseddramatically:theeconomiccontribution from fish and shellfish farming increased by132%over theperiod2000 to2006 (CEFAS2008). In2007,Scottishproductionofmarinefinfishrepresentedover99%of UK cultured marine finfish, producing approximately130,000 tonnes (FRS 2009). Production was dominated byAtlanticsalmon(Salmo salar),makingScotlandthelargestsalmonproducerintheEUandthethirdlargestgloballyafterNorwayandChile(Baxteret al.2008).In2007,turnoverfromfinfish farming in theUKwas£327million,while shellfishfarminggenerated£23million(CEFAS2008).

Trends in Scottish salmon production show a nine-fold increase from17,952tonnes in1988to169,736tonnesin 2003 (Figure 12.9). Between 2002 and 2005, salmonproduction varied, but since then, it has remained stable.At the same time, employment in the salmonaquaculturefarms has decreased from 1,309 total staff in 1998 to 949staffin2008(FRS2009;Figure 12.10).Meanproductivityper person, however, has been increasing; for Atlanticsalmonitincreasedfrom132.4tonnesperpersonin2005to151.4tonnesperpersonin2006(Baxteret al.2008).

InEnglandandWales,therewere518registeredfishandshellfishfarmsin2008,ofwhich,197weretroutandotherfinfishfarms(marineandfreshwaterfisharenotseparated)and128wereshellfishfarms;theremainderwerecoarsefishfarms.ShellfishfarmproductioninEnglandandWaleshasbeengraduallyrising(Figure 12.11).Atotalof15,686tonneswere produced in 2008 comprised primarily of mussels(15,025tonnes)andoysters(642tonnes).InEnglanditwasworth£4.5min2007,andwasmainlymusselswithsmall

Table 12.3 Fleet capacity in 2008 by country. Source:extractedfromMMO(2010).

CountryNumber of

Vessels

Capacity (gross

tonnage)

Engine power(kW)

England 3,200 59,974 306,450

NorthernIreland 351 12,734 52,828

Scotland 2,213 126,794 419,984

Wales 470 5606 32,803

Figure 12.9 Annual production of Atlantic salmon (live weight equivalent in tonnes) from the Scottish aquaculture sector between 1988 and 2008. Source:dataextractedfromFRS(2009).

020406080

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quantities of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) and nativeoyster (Ostrea edulis), and very small quantities of clamandcockle (Saunders2010). InWales, shellfishproductionwasalmostentirelymusselsandwasworth£7.5million.InNorthernIrelandtherewere84licensedfishfarmsin2007(CEFAS2009)whichweredominatedbymussels,withsomeoyster and clam production. It was estimated to be worth£5.8millionin2007(Saunders2010).ShellfishproductioninScotlandin2007involved170shellfishproductioncompaniesoperating on 336 sites and was worth £5.1 million. Totalproduction in2007was5,053 tonnes,andwasdominatedby mussels (4,806 tonnes), followed by Pacific oysters(208 tonnes), native oysters (22 tonnes), queen scallopsAequipecten opercularis (15 tonnes) and scallops Pecten maximus(2tonnes)(FRS2008).

Marineaquaculturecontributes21.4%ofthefinfishandshellfish supplied to the fish processing sector (Seafish2009).Provisionaldata for2007, releasedby theOffice forNationalStatistics,showsthattotalsales(turnover)bytheUK fish processing sector were £2,567 million, comparedwithtotalinputsof£2,077million,resultinginaGVA(GrossValue Added) of £490 million. Based on the proportion ofaquacultureproductsupplied to thefishprocessingsector,it isestimated that£105millionof theGVAwasrelated toaquaculture.

Aquaculture impacts on the marine environment. The Productive Seas Evidence Group Feeder Report(Saunders 2010) describes a number of impacts of bothfinfishandshellfishaquacultureonthemarineenvironment.Finfish production often has a greater environmentalfootprintdueto:■ The dependence on wild species as fish feed (e.g.

sandeeels,herringandanchovy), theremovalofwhichmayimpactonseabirdbreedingsuccess.

■ The organic enrichment of areas beneath fish cagesleadingtothedeoxygenationofseabedsediments.

■ Increased inputs of nitrogenandphosphorus fromfishfaeces which may contribute to phytoplankton growthandeutrophication.

■ Introductionsofnon-indigenousspeciesandinterbreedingofescapedfarmspecieswiththewildpopulation.

■ Increased densities of larval sea lice which can betransferredfromfarmedfishtowildfish.

■ Contaminationbysyntheticcompounds(e.g.disinfectantantibiotics) and non-synthetic compounds (e.g. heavymetals).

■ Theintroductionofmicrobialpathogens.■ Changes in habitat structure, water flow and wave

exposure due to the presence of infrastructure bothunderwaterandaroundtheaquaculturesite.

■ Management of other species, such as seals, that mayimpactonaquaculture.

Shellfish aquaculture is often considered relativelysustainable, especially where spat collection results as aconsequenceofnaturalsettlement(asisthecaseofmanymussel farms) and where harvesting is based on hand-collectionorraking.Wherebottomcultivation isusedandharvesting (including spat collection) is undertaken bydredging(e.g.formusselsandoysters),thereareconcernsover the impacts of physical damage to the environment.Otherconcernsovershellfishaquacultureincludelocaliseddepletionofphytoplanktonwhereoverstockinghasoccurredandtheintroductionofnon-indigenousspecies.

Fishmeal and fish oil. Fishmeal is produced almostexclusively from small, bony species of pelagic fish whichgenerallyliveinthesurfacewatersormiddledepthsofthesea, and for which, there is a limited market for humanconsumption, for example, sandeel, herring, capelin andsprat (Figure 12.12). Fishmeal production also providesa major outlet for recycling trimmings from the food-fishprocessing sector, which would otherwise be dumped atextra cost to the environment and the consumer. The UKimportsaroundfourtimesasmuchfishmealasitproduces(FAO2008).

Seaweed (macroalgae). Seaweeds play a wide andvaried role in modern life as they are increasingly beingexploitedasafoodresourceandasourceofindustrialand

Figure 12.10 Number of people employed in Scottish salmon farms between 1988 and 2008. Source:dataextractedfromFRS(2009).

Figure 12.11 Farmed shellfish production (live weight equivalent in tonnes) in England and Wales from 1993 to 1998, including the production of oysters, mussels, clams, cockles and scallops Source:dataextractedfromCEFAS(2009).

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pharmaceutical chemicals. Gelatinous extracts includealginate, agar and carrageenan, which are used as foodadditives.Seaweedsaremarketed forconsumptionas seavegetables,beautyandhealthproducts,andlandfertilisers.TheUKcoastlineharboursalargearrayofseaweeds,asmallnumberofwhichareexploitedforcommercialgain.Around3,000–4,000tonnes(wetweight)peryearofAscophyllumareharvestedinScotlands’UistIslands(seeTheMinchProject;www.cne-siar.gov.uk/minch/seaweed/seaweed.htm),along with Laminaria species, principally L. hyperborea,cast ashore during the winter months; some 35 peopleare involved in its collection. In 2006, three commercialseaweedharvestingcompanieswereidentifiedinNorthernIreland, although small-scale collection is also seasonallycustomary (McLaughlin et al. 2006). Twelve species ofseaweedwerecommerciallyharvestedasfreshvegetationordrift,beach-castseaweed.Collectionwascarriedoutlargelybynon-mechanicalmeans:harvestersuseboats for shoreaccess, vehicles for the transportation of the harvest, anddiving and cutting equipment. The international seaweedindustryvalueexceedsUS$6billionannually(McLaughlinet al.2006;equivalenttoapproximately£3.6billion),whichisanimportantdrivingfactorfortheUKseaweedindustry.

Bait. EstimatesofseaanglingintheUKcurrentlysuggestthatatleast1,000tonnesofbaitwormsareusedeveryyear(Fowler1999).Baitcollectionorprovisionactivity israrelyrecordedordeclared,butmarketsurveysindicatethatsome500–700 tonnes of bait worms are dug for personal useand300–500tonnesofwormsfromcommercial(including‘blackeconomy’)sourcesentertheretailtrade.Baitwormsentering the retail market are derived from wild-dug andfarmedsourcesintheUK.Thecommercialvalueofthemainbaitspecies(e.g.ragworms(Neanthes (Nereis) virens, Hediste (Nereis) diversicolor, Nephtys sp.), lugworms (Arenicola marina, A. defodiens) andpeelercrabs(Carcinus maenus))intheUKisbetween£25–30millionperannum(Fowler1999).

12.3.1.2 ConsumptionSupplies of seafood to the UK can be divided into fourcategories:landingsbyUKandforeignvessels,aquaculture,and imports. In 2008, consumers in the UK bought over385,000tonnesoffresh,frozenandcannedseafoodatretailoutlets, together worth over £2.73 billion (Seafish 2009).TheUKconsumesanaverageof23.6kgoffishproductsperpersonperyear,andpredictionshavesuggestedthatthisissettorise(Pinnegaret al.2010).TheUKhumanpopulationisanticipatedtorisefrom61millionto77millionbytheyear2051 (Office for National Statistics 2010). This equates toa totalUKdemand for fishproductsof 1.8million tonnes,suggesting that indigenous and global fish resources willcomeunderincreasingpressureinthefuture.

UKexportsoffishandshellfishrosefrom377,000tonnes(£355 million) in 1998 to 480,000 tonnes (£891 million) in2003(Saunderset al.2010).Exportssubsequentlydeclinedin weight to 431,000 tonnes in 2007, although the valueincreasedto£944millionin2006beforedecliningto£909millionin2007.Exportsaremainlythepelagicfishmackerelandherring,aswellassalmon.

The UK is becoming increasingly reliant on imports.Import volumes have increased by 46% between 1998 and2008.In1998,533,000tonnes(£1,066million)wereimported,risingto754,000tonnes(£1,922million)in2006(MFA2008),making the UK a net importer of fish. The main speciesimportedarecod,haddock, tuna, shrimpsandprawns.Forsomekeydemersalspecies,suchascodandhaddock,importscurrentlyarewellinexcessofexports.Whereasinthepelagicfishingsector,exportsofherringandmackerelarelargerthanimports.Mostimportsin2007werefromEuropeancountries.ThesefiguresarepartofthetotallandingsintotheUK.

12.3.1.3 PressuresTheprovisionoffishandotherecosystemservicesarebeingimpactedthroughnon-sustainableratesoffishingmortality(relatedtofishingeffortandfishinggearselectivity)leadingtochangesinagestructure,spawningstockbiomass,speciescompositions and distribution of fish stocks. In addition,somefishingpractices,suchastrawlinganddredging,haveanegativeimpactonthemarineenvironmentwhich,inturn,reduces theenvironment’sability toprovide food.Climaticfactorshavebeenshowntoalterfishcommunitystructurethroughchangesindistribution,migration,recruitmentandgrowth(Pinnegaret al.2010;Pinnegar&Heath2010).

Profitabilityoffishingoperationshasalsovariedwidelyduetofactorssuchasincreasesinfuelprices,quotatrading,and first-sale prices following the introduction of buyersandsellersregulationsin2006.Forinstance,thedemersalfisheries in the North Sea, west of Scotland and Irish Seahave experienced a shift away from offshore fishing forfinfishspecies,towardsvaluablefisheriesforNorwaylobsterand other shellfish, along with mixed demersal species ininshorewaters (Saunderset al.2010).Theshiftawayfromoffshoredemersalfinfishhasresultedpartlyfromlong-termdeclinesinmanystocksandassociatedfishingrestrictions,particularlythoseaimedatcodrecovery,andpartlyfromtheperceivedeconomicopportunitiesinotherfisheries.

The Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) has been thedominantregulatoryinfluenceonthebehaviouroffishermen.

Figure 12.12 Yearly small pelagic fisheries and fishmeal production in the UK. The species used to produce fishmeal are herring, sprat, sandeels and capelin (following the International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organization). Source:datafromtheFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAO)FishStatstatisticalcollectionsforfishproductionintheUK(FAO2008).

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Atlantic herringSandlacesEuropean spratTotal Small Pelagic (3spp)Fishmeal production

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The restrictive influences of this policy have intensifiedin recent years with a combination of catch quotas, gearrestrictionsandlimitsondaysatseaallseekingtoreducefishing effort and catches to more sustainable levels. Thefishing industry hasalso continued to innovate, and therehavebeenmarkedtechnologicaldevelopmentstoincreasecatch efficiency. However, Thurstan et al. (2010) proposethatthelandingsoffish(intonnes)perunitoffishingpowermayhavedeclinedby94%over the last118years (1889 to2007). It seemsobvious thatdecliningstocksofmanyfishhaveresultedinreducedcatches.Climatechangeisalsoafactorandistobeincludedalongsidefishingpressureinthecurrent ongoing review of the CFP to cover the two maindriversoffishstocksinthenorth-eastAtlantic.

12.3.2 Regulating Services

12.3.2.1 Waste breakdown and detoxificationThere is a long history of the use of rivers, estuaries andcoastalwaterfordisposalofvarioustypesofwastematerialsby humans. The waste results from industrialisation andthe need to dispose of toxic and non-toxic materials, andurbanisation requiring the need to remove human wasteproductsthroughseweragesystems.Thisuseofthewatersystem solved immediate health problems for humans,but created environmental problems. Yet the environmenthasanaturalcapacitytodetoxifysomesubstancesandtodegrade others to less toxic forms (although sometimesmore toxic forms are produced). Marine ecosystems thatreceive human waste materials are, therefore, providing awastebreakdownanddetoxificationservice.Thecapacityofthemarineenvironmenttocopewithsuchloadshasbeenoverwhelmedattimes,resultinginpollution.

Thedevelopmentofseweragesystemsresultedfromtheneedtodisposeofhumanwasteawayfrompopulationstoallow improvements in human health and hygiene; withrelatively low population levels at the time, this provedsuccessful. The subsequent growth in population resultedin a gross overloading of many estuarine and coastalwaters, and led to the introduction of different levels oftechnicaltreatmentovertime.Primarytreatment,involvingthe settling of solid material and its subsequent disposalto agricultural land as soil conditioner and fertiliser, orthe disposal of solid material to designated coastal sites,was effective for many years. However, this resulted inmanywatersbeingcontaminatedwith faecalbacteriaandcausedlocalchangestotheecosystematdesignatedsites.AfterWWII(duringwhichthesewerageinfrastructurehadbeen severely damaged in many places), the needs of thedeveloping population were met by no, or only primary,treatmentofsolidmaterialpriortoitsdischargetocoastalwaters.By theendof the1980s,however, itwasapparentthattherewasaneedforchange,andtheECUrbanWasteWater Treatment Directive came into force requiring aminimum of secondary treatment generally using aerobicbiologicalprocessestodegradethebiologicalcontentofthesewage(derivedfrome.g.humanwaste,foodwaste,soapsand detergent) before discharge. Hence, the pressure onthe environment’s capacity to process the sewage effluentreduced.Althoughthehumanpopulationcontinuestogrow,

technicaltreatmenthasreducedourneedtomakeuseofthecapacityoftheecosystemtodegradesewagewaste.Therestill remain local issues, however, where the presence ofhumanfaecalbacteriaandpathogensisaffectingotherusesofthecoastalseas.

The deleterious effects of recently introduced and lesswell studied environmental contaminants and chemicals,such as nano-particles and pharmaceuticals, which passthrough sewage treatment plants is of concern, and thecapacity of ecosystems to breakdown and detoxify theseproducts is largely unknown (Readman 2006; Celiz et al.2009).

Sewage contains significant quantities of the nutrientsnitrogen and phosphorous. Add to this the significant useofcompoundsofnitrogenandphosphorusinagricultureasfertilisers, manures and slurries and there is considerablerisk of eutrophication, especially in estuaries and coastalwaters, if nutrient enrichment leads to an increase in thegrowthofalgaeandotherplantlifeandsubsequentlycausesanundesirabledisturbancetothebalanceoforganismsandwaterquality.Toprevent thishappening,manydischargesof sewage to freshwatersarenowgiven further treatmenttoremovenitrogenandphosphorus.InEnglandandWales,forexample,secondarytreatmentwasappliedtothewastefrom 63 million population equivalents (a measure ofthe load from sewage and industrial waste expressed inhumanpopulationterms) in2009,whichisabout99.4%ofthe total; of this, 16 million population equivalents weresubject to tertiary treatment including the reduction ofnutrientconcentration(EnvironmentAgencypers.comm.).Asaresultofsuchtreatments,eutrophicationhasbecomea localisedproblem.The fact that theseasaround theUKare dynamic and well-oxygenated—a requirement of thebacteria that help to breakdown the organic materials insewage—also means that further treatment of sewage isoftennotnecessary.Wetlands,particularlyaroundestuaries,can be very effective at absorbing nutrients and furtherreducingtheloadonthesea.Thiscapacityisunderthreatfrom construction for flood and coastal protection and,thoughmostlyinthepast,throughlandreclamation.Someof this capacity is being redeveloped as part of managedrealignment schemes improving natural flood defences,but it requires careful management to deliver the service(Andrewset al.2006;Shepherdet al.2007;Chapter11).

SinceWWIItherehasbeenarapidgrowthinchemicalindustriesandindustriesthatmakeuseofawiderangeofchemicals.Thishasresultedinthedischargeofsubstantialquantities of substances to the seas which have causedvariousdegreesofpollution;now,all significant industrialdischarges are subject to permits designed to protectthe environment. However, there still is a legacy today ofcertain substances that are persistent, toxic and liable tobio-accumulate,andthesematerialswillbepresent in theenvironmentforsometime.Tosomeextent,andforsomesubstances,burialinsedimentsanddispersionwillreducethethreatthatthesesubstancespose—providingaserviceof storage and removal from the environment. In somecircumstances, activities that disturb sediments, such asbottom trawling or dredging and disposal operations inports,caninterferewiththisservice.

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We use the environment to degrade all contaminantson a shorter or longer timescale by bacterial action,hydrolysis, photolytic degradation and metabolism withinanimals.Anythingwhichisreadilybiodegradableorwhichhydrolysesrapidlywouldtakeashortertimetodegrade(e.g.organophosphate insecticides); anything that is persistent(e.g. polychlorinated biphenyl’s (PCBs), particularly CB138,CB153 and CB180) would take longer to degrade. Butover varying periods of time, the majority are eventuallytransformedtolesstoxiccompounds.Therecanbeproblemswith thisservice, forexample,alkylphenolethoxylatesarereadilydegraded,buttoalkylphenolswhicharebothmorepersistent and more toxic. While it may be desirable toensurethatdischargesofhazardoussubstancestotheseaare as low as we can reasonably achieve, we should alsoaimtoavoiddamagingtheplantsandanimalsinthesea—makingappropriateuseofthecapacityoftheseatodegradeanddetoxifywillhelpustoachievethis.

Some of the most high profile, and often accidental,discharges are those of oil (hydrocarbons) into the sea.Theoil andshipping industries releasesmallquantitiesofoil during routine operations which, togetherwith naturaloil seeps on the seabed, provide a background level ofhydrocarbons in the seas. Populations of bacteria whichcandegradehydrocarbonsarepresentinthesea.Therefore,there is an effective natural cleansing service in the seasfor hydrocarbons, except in the case of large spills fromshippingaccidents.Even in thecaseof largespills, theoilis eventuallydegraded, although it can take some time toreturntopre-existinglevelsduetoacombinationoffactors;moreoftenthannot,ittakestheoiltoolongtodegradetopreventdisruptiontootherecosystemservices.

Growthoforganismsonstructuresandvesselsintheseaisknownasfoulingandcanbeaseriousproblemreducingthe performance and strength of these economicallyimportant maritime appliances. The widespread use ofTributyltin(TBT)asananti-foulantonshipsandstructuresduring the 1970s and 1980s dealt with the problem veryeffectively.However,awell-documentedside-effectofTBTis the severe impact it has on certain molluscs (Gibbs et al.1991;Voset al.2000).Followingrestrictionsontheuseof TBT due to its detrimental effects on marine life, andcoupledwiththefactthatTBTdoesdegradeintheseabedasaresultofbacterialactivity,thereisgoodevidencethatthe problems it causes will disappear after a few years.Since the ban on the use of TBT, several new syntheticanti-foulants have been brought onto the market. Some,includingIrgarol,arecompoundswhichhavebeenshowntohavedeleteriousimpactsonnon-targetbenthicorganismslivinginthevicinityofmarinas,portsandharbours(Hallet al.1999;Chesworthet al.2004).

12.3.2.2 Climate regulationThechemicalcompositionoftheatmosphereandoceanismaintained through a series of biogeochemical processesregulatedbylivingmarineorganisms.Themaintenanceofahealthy,habitableplanetisdependentonprocessessuchastheregulationofthevolatileorganichalides,ozone,oxygenand dimethyl sulphide, and the exchange and regulationof carbon, by marine organisms. For example, marine

organismsplayasignificantroleinclimatecontrolthroughtheir regulationofcarbonfluxes,byactingasareserveorsink for carbon dioxide in living tissue,and by facilitatingburial of carbon in seabed sediments. Of all the carbondioxidecapturedintheworldbyphotosynthesisandstoredaslivingordeadmaterialofbiologicalorigin,overhalf(55%)is captured by living marine organisms (Nellemann et al.2009).However,thereisnoreadilyavailabledatafortheUKthatquantifiestotallivingbiomassinmarineandestuarinesedimentsorthewatercolumn.

Shelfseasystemsmakeasignificantcontributiontothecarbonbudget(Nellemann2009),andmarinephytoplanktonproductivity in UK ocean, shelf and coastal waters hasbeenusedasan indicatorof theclimate regulationservice(Beaumont et al. 2008). Large-scale marine primaryproductioncanbedeterminedbyremotesensingmethodstoquantifytheconcentrationofphotosyntheticpigments(Joint& Groom 2000). Production can then be calculated usingthephotosynthesismodelofSmythet al.(2005).Thismodelwas applied to earth observation data collected between1998and2009(www.neodaas.ac.uk)tocalculateplanktonicprimary productivity for an area slightly larger than UKterritorialwaters (47°–63°N;15°W–9°E).Theaverageannualprimary production (carbon sequestered by phytoplankton)was0.371±0.020billiontonnesofcarbonperyear(GtC/yr±95%confidenceinterval;Smythunpublished).Thisisabout0.75%ofthewidelyacceptedvalueofaround50GtC/yrforglobalmarineproductionbasedonglobalprimaryproductionmodels(Behrenfeld&Falkowski,1997;Fieldet al.1998;Carret al.2006).Valuesforthe12-yearperiodarequitevariablewith no clear patterns evident (Figure 12.13a). Thesesurfacewaterfiguresareanunderestimatefortotalprimaryproduction.Theydonotincludeprimaryproductionfromthesignificantquantitiesofmacroalgaeontheintertidalseashoreand the shallow subtidal rocks, nor from the significantlevels of benthic micro-algal production on intertidal sandandmudflats, especiallywithinestuaries.Theyalsodonotindicatehowmuchofthefixedcarbonisthensubsequentlysequestered either by removal offshore sinking into deepwaterandsediments,orbyburialinshallowwatersediments.

Another approach that is being developed by variousresearchprojects(e.g.NaturalEnvironmentResearchCouncil(NERC)Oceans2025,EUMarineEcosystemEvolution inaChanging Environment (MEECE)) is coupled, hydrographicecosystemmodellingof the last50years in thenorth-eastAtlanticandnorth-westEuropeanshelfseas.A3Dsimulationmodel hindcast (ERSEM-POLCOMS and developments(Allenet al.2001;Holtet al.2005)forcedbytheECMWF-ERA(climate)re-analysisproducesestimatesofannualbiomassofcarboninthepelagiccomponentsofbacteria,phytoplanktonandzooplankton(Butenschönunpublished,Figure 12.13b).Similartothe12-yearphytoplanktonproductiontime-series,there is considerable annual variation in the modelledbiomassoutputsandnosignalofacleartrendinchangeovertheperiodfrom1960to2004.

Changes in marine biodiversity influence thebiogeochemical cycling of carbon and nutrients withinseabedsediments,intheoverlyingwatercolumn,andattheinterfacesbetweensedimentandwater.Thiscanultimatelyresultinchangesinthecapacityofthemarineenvironment

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to actas a carbon sink and has a strong feedback on theatmosphereandtheclimate(Legendre&Rivkin2005).Thesurfacewaterprimaryproductionofcarbonbyphytoplanktonthat is exported as organic and inorganic carbon to thedeeperoceanwatersistermedthe‘biologicalcarbonpump’.The global ocean has taken up approximately one thirdof accumulated emissions of the greenhouse gas carbondioxidesince the industrial revolution (Sabine .et al.2004;Sabine&Feeley2007).Thishashadthebenefitofslowingtherateofbuild-upintheatmosphere,buttheaccumulationintheoceanreducesseawaterpHmakingitmoreacidic.ThishighrateofreductionofpH,knownasoceanacidification,may lead toecosystemdamageand functionalchanges inthefuture(Widdicombeet al.2009;Hopkinset al.2010)withpossible impactsonecosystemservices includingchangesinshellfishyieldsandfishproductivity, changes inwildliferesources,suchasdeep-watercoralsandgeneticresourcesfor biotechnology, and negative feedbacks on climateregulation.Research isunderway toassess the impactsofoceanacidification.

12.3.2.3 Flood, storm and coastal protectionLiving marine flora and fauna can play a valuable role inthedefenceofcoastalregionsbydampeningenvironmentaldisturbances (Beaumont et al. 2007, 2008; Chapter 11). Adiverse range of species bind and stabilise sediments andcreate natural sea defences, for example biogenic reefs,seagrass beds, mudflats and saltmarshes. The presenceof these organisms in the front line of sea defence candissipate energy and, therefore, dampen and prevent theimpactoftidalsurges,waves,stormsandfloods(Brampton1992,Mölleret al 1999,Widdows&Brinsley2002). This isa critical service, particularly as the risk of flooding, bothintermsofseverityandfrequency,hasbeenaccentuatedinrecentyearsbytheonsetofclimatechange.Theimpactsof

globalsealevelrise(Boorman2003)climaterelatedchangesin shoreline erosion, and human influence on shorelinestructure are causing a loss of saltmarsh in the UK of 2%peryear(Nottage&Robertson2005).This lossofwetlandhascontributedtoanincreaseinfloodriskandsubsequentinvestmentinflooddefence(Dixonet al. 1998).

Many types of flora can contribute to the reduction inwaveenergy inUKcoastal zones.Seagrasses (Fonseca&Cahalan1992)andhalophytic(salttolerant)reeds(Coopset al.1996)playaminorroleintheUKduetotheirsmallspatialscale; the major contribution to disturbance prevention isfrom saltmarshes (Paramor & Hughes 2004). With respectto alleviating flood risk to coastal communities, estuarineand coastal wetlands not only attenuate wave energy,but also play a role in reducing erosion of the coastline.Mudflats dissipate tidal and wave energy to a level lowenough topermitnet sedimentdepositionand thisallowscolonisation by saltmarsh or reedbed vegetation on theupper intertidal zone (Nottage & Robertson 2005). Thiscoupled system ismaintained through sedimentexchangeaided by the alternating dominance of bio-stabilisers andbio-destabilisers,controlledbyclimaticfactors(Widdows&Brinsley 2002). Although saltmarshes are often inundatedwith marine water, especially during high spring tides,theirroleindisturbancepreventionisaddressedindetailinChapter11.

Subtidalandintertidalbiogenicreefsarehabitatsthatareunderthreat(Section12.2.3).Theyarealsolikelytodampenenergy inwavesandtidalsurgesbut thecontribution thattheymaketodisturbancepreventionhasnotbeenquantified.

12.3.3 Cultural Services Thepopulationof theUKisoftencitedashavingastrongaffinity for the sea, as much of our heritage is linked tomaritime activities. Reminders of this maritime heritage

Figure 12.13 Carbon regulation in UK waters: a) using the indicator of annual marine phytoplankton productivity in ocean, shelf and coastal waters for an area slightly larger than UK territorial waters (47°–63°N; 15°W–09°E). Large-scale marine primary production was determined by applying remote sensing methods for data collected between 1998 and 2009 (www.neodaas.ac.uk) to quantify the concentration of photosynthetic pigments (Joint & Groom 2000) and then calculating primary production using the photosynthesis model of Smyth et al. (2005); b) using hindcast ecosystem modelling (ERSEM-POLCOMS and developments (Allen et al. 2001; Holt et al. 2005) forced by the ECMWF-ERA (climate) re-analysis of annual biomass of carbon in the pelagic components of bacteria, phytoplankton and zooplankton (Butenschön unpublished). Map insets shows domain area which is used to generate data.

a) primary production b) organic carbonPr

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arestill inexistence today:fishingvillages, fishandchips,thelargenavy,lighthousesandmuseums,andliteratureonsmuggling. In a UK-wide poll undertaken by The WildlifeTrustsin2007,78%ofrespondentsstatedthattheUK’sseasare important to theirpersonalqualityof life (TheWildlifeTrusts 2007). While the majority of the UK population nolongerobtainsitslivelihoodfromthesea,thefactthatmanypeople consider the sea to be important for their qualityof lifesuggests that theyobtainotherbenefits from it thatincludeculturalones.

Itisdifficult,however,todisentangletheculturalbenefitssociety derives from the marine environment from thoseit obtains from the coastal terrestrial fringes as it is fromthe coast that most people experience the sea (Chapter11&16).Fewpeople,other thandivers,ever interactwiththe underwater seascapes around the UK. Fishermen,whoaredependentuponthesea for their livelihoods,andcommercialandrecreationalboatusersdonotexperiencethe underwater world in the same way as one would aterrestrialenvironment.Thesenseofplaceassociatedwithsitesonlandisrarelyexperiencedforsub-marinesites(Roseet al. 2008).Furthermore,while thecoast isoften thoughtofasaplaceofbeautyandwitha senseofnostalgia, theseaandunderseaareconsideredquitedifferently,often innegativetermssuchasbarren,coldanddark(KSBRBrandFutures2008).

The relationship with the marine environment is alsodistinct because of the way property rights are defined.TheCrownEstateowns the seabedout to the12nauticalmile (nm) territorial limit, but they do not own the watercolumnor the rights fornavigationor forfishing. In somecases,fishingrightsareheritable(forexample,somecoastalsalmon fisheries in Scotland are owned by the operatorsas heritable titles) or informal agreements exist betweenfishermen(forexample,crabpottingareasareallocatedtoparticular boats), but in general, marine waters are openaccess;thesenseofownershipis,therefore,missing.

12.3.3.1 Environmental settings: education, research and development opportunitiesThe marine environment also presents a number ofeducationalopportunities;school trips to thebeachand/oraquaria are common particularly in coastal communities,althoughpeoplelivingsomedistanceawayfromthecoastarealsoabletolearnaboutmarinelifethroughvisitstoaquariaandsealifecentresthroughouttheUK(e.g.BirminghamandAltonTowers) (Figure 12.14).AnumberofenvironmentalNon-governmentalOrganisations(NGOs)andenvironmentaleducation businesses also offer educational facilities toschools.Forexample,theMarineConservationSociety(MCS),throughitsCoolSeasprogramme,hasvisitedmorethan400schools in the UK, reaching over 120,000 school childrensinceitsinceptionin2006.SurfersAgainstSewagealsohaveaschoolsprogramme,asdomanyaquaria:forexample,theNationalMarineAquarium(NMA)inPlymouthreceived27,166educational visitors during 2008–2009. Recognising theireducationalpotential,theNMAoffersanumberofeducationalexperiences linked to the national curriculum. The MarineBiologicalAssociationrunsbothTheShoreThing,aclimatechangeshoreprojectlinkedtothenationalcurriculum,andeducational events at beaches designated as part of theBBCBreathingPlacesnationaleducationalprogramme.TheAggregatesLevySustainabilityFundhasalsosupportedanoutreachprogramme,ExploretheSeaFloor,whichreachedover500schoolsbetween2005and2008,andhasdistributedmorethan9,000interactiveeducationalCD-ROMs,amongstotheractivities(Murphy2008).

In recent years, the development of new technologies(suchas remotelyoperatedunderwatervehicles,deep-seasamplingequipment, remote sensingand improveddivingequipment) and investment in marine research have ledto greater understanding of the marine environment. AnindicationofhowmarineresearchanddevelopmentintheUKhaschangedisgivenbyPughandSkinner(2002).Betweensurveysin1988–1989,1994–1995and1999–2000theyreportan approximate 10% increase in public sector researchfunding (e.g. NERC, Department for the Environment,FoodandRuralAffairs(Defra),university),withresearchernumbersfluctuatingaround2,000.Somefundingleviedfrommarine industries, such as aggregate extraction, is usedto support a broad range of marine research (Box 12.3).The top four marine-related university course disciplinesin 1999–2000 were marine biology, physical and chemicaloceanenvironment,thecoastalzoneandshipdesign.TheproportionofresearchthatisfocusedentirelyonUKseasisunknown.

The private sector, particularly pharmaceuticals and‘blue’ biotechnology industries, are growth areas that arealsoknowntoinvestsubstantialsumsintomarine-relatedresearch and development. For example, AquapharmBiodiscovery Ltd, Oban, secured £4 million in 2007 tosupport its work on anti-infective drug discovery and thedevelopment of novel ingredients for food additives andcosmetics such as anti-aging creams (www.aquapharm.co.uk/news_archive.html); it has subsequently obtained afurther £4.2 million in 2010 to continue this work (www.aquapharm.co.uk/news.html). Other centres of bluebiotechnology strength include the Marine Biodiscovery

Figure 12.14 Educational trips to the seashore are becoming increasingly popular amongst schools, especially those located near the coast. Gara rocks near East Prawle in South Devon. Photo courtesy of MarLIN.

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Centre,Aberdeen;PlymouthMarineLaboratory;Glycomar,based together with Aquapharm within the EuropeanCentreforMarineBiotechnology,Oban;andtheUniversityof Newcastle’s School of Marine Technology and Science.Detailed statistics that disaggregate the marine relatedcomponentarenotavailabletoassesshowtheseindustrieshavechangedovertime.

12.3.3.2 Environmental settings: leisure and recreationThemostobviousculturalbenefitthatsocietyreceivesfromthe marine environment is the opportunity for leisure andrecreational activities. The UK Leisure Day Visits Survey(2002–20039)reports267millionvisitstotheseasideduringthatyear,approximately5%ofallUKleisuredayvisits.Thisisanincreasefromprevioussurveys:in1994,seasidevisitsaccountedforonly3.5%ofallUKdayleisurevisits(althoughthis figure varies across England, Scotland and Wales: in2002–20034%ofdayvisits inEnglandweretotheseaside,comparedto9%inScotlandand12%inWales).Expenditureat theseasideasaproportionofallexpenditureonleisuredayvisitshasremainedmoreorlessconstantataround4%between 1994 and 2002–2003, although the actual amounthasincreasedoverthisperiodfrom£2.2billionto£3.2billion.

Itisdifficulttoaccountforthecontributionofthemarineenvironmenttothesefigures,butthedrawoftheseamust

beassumedtoplayapart,especiallygiventheopportunityitprovidesforwater-basedrecreationalactivitiesandwildlife-watching. Anecdotal evidence suggests that wildlife-watchingisanincreasinglypopularactivityatthecoast,yetthesectorhasstilltobedocumentedquantitatively(Curtin&Wilkes2005)andonlyasmallnumberoffocusedstudiescurrentlyexist.The2002UKTourismSurveydatasuggeststhatofallUK tourism trips (tripsaway fromhome lastingonenightormore),17.1%involvedwildlife-watching/naturestudy; up from 14.8% in 2000 and 15.4% in 2001 (thesestatistics have not been collected in subsequent years). Itis unclear what proportion of these are marine wildlife-watching activities, but there appears to be a growingnumber of tour operators offering trips to see whales,sharks,dolphins,sealsandseabirdcoloniesaroundtheUKcoast. In Scotland, all forms of wildlife-watching tourismhave been estimated to generate £156 million in incomeand7,446jobs(ScottishGovernmentSocialresearch2010).Ofthis,£36millionand1,705jobs(FullTimeEmployment(FTE) equivalent) are attributable to marine wildlifetourism, and £56 million and 2,681 jobs are generated bycoastalwildlife tourism. Ina like-mindedstudy, theRSPB(2010) has attempted to estimate the value of seabirdcoloniesthroughtheanalysisofvisitorexpenditureacrossfour case study sites: Bempton Cliffs nature reserve, East

Box 12.3 Marine aggregate extraction support for marine research.

Figure 1 Operational Trailer Suction Hopper Dredger. Photo courtesy of HR Wallingford.

Figure 2 Divers photograph the wooden hull structure of the ‘Mystery Wreck’, Eastern Solent. Photo courtesy of Hampshire & Wight Trust for Maritime Archaeology and D. McElvogue.

Supportformarineresearchcomesfromadiverserangeofsources,forexample,theAggregatesLevySustainabilityFund(ALSF)whichisaresearchlevyimposedontheindustry(MALSF2010).ByMarch2011,theMarineALSFwillhaveprovidedabout£25milliontomarineresearchassociatedwithaggregateextraction(MEPFSecretariat2010).Whilemuchoftheresearchitfundsfocusesonenvironmentalandecosystemimpactsofaggregateextraction(Figure 1)andtherecoveryofextractionsites,some£7millionisdedicatedtothecharacterisationoftheseabedenvironment(forexample,RegionalEnvironmentalCharacterisation(REC))projectstoenablebroad-

scalecharacterisationoftheseabedhabitats,theirbiologicalcommunitiesandpotentialhistoricenvironmentassetswithintheregions);developmentoftechniquesforlocatingseabedhistoricobjects,theirmanagementandconservation(Figure 2);andknowledgetransfer.OnesuchexampleistheHistoricSeascapeCharacterisationprogrammesupportedjointlythroughtheALSFandEnglishHeritage.TheprogrammeisdevelopinganapproachformappingthehistoricseascapesofEngland’swatersinanattempttobetterunderstandthehistoricalandculturaldevelopmentofthepresentmarine,intertidalandcoastalareas.

9 Morerecentstatisticsareavailablefromthe2005survey,butthesurveyswerecarriedoutindependentlyforeachcountrywithintheUKandthemethodofdatacollectionchangedmakingcomparisondifficult.

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Yorkshire;SouthStackCliffsnaturereserve,Anglesey;Mullof Galloway nature reserve, Dumfries and Galloway; andRathlinIsland,CountyAntrim.Theyestimatethatbetweenabout3–9%ofday-tripperspendand5–16%ofholidaymakerspend (thosestayingovernight) isattributable toseabirdsin the four locations. In 2009, this equated to £754,190fromBempton;£222,822 fromSouthStack;£114,848 fromtheMullofGalloway;and£115,629fromRathlin.Giventheisolated nature of these locations, the reserves make animportant contribution to the local economies. The RSPBhas also calculated that certain iconic bird species makesubstantial contributions to local economies through theattractionofvisitors(Dickieet al.2006).Forexample,white-tailedeagles(Haliaeetus albicilla)bringbetween£1.4millionand£1.6millionannuallytotheIsleofMull,andthesmallfamilyofchoughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)ontheLizard,Cornwall,brought£118,000in2004.

Statistical evidence is available for water-basedrecreationalactivities for2005 to2008 fromaconsortiumof the British Marine Federation (BMF), Maritime andCoastguard Agency (MCA), Royal National LifeboatInstitution (RNLI) and Royal Yachting Association (RYA)(BMFet al.2005–2008).Theyestimatethatmorethan50%ofallsmallsailboatactivities,windsurfing,useofpersonalwater craft, motor boats/cruising, yacht cruising, power-boating, yacht racing, surfing, kite surfing, angling from aboat,outdoorswimming,andsub-aquaactivitiesintheUKoccuratthecoastwheretheyaredependentonthemarineenvironment. In many instances, over 75% of activitiesoccur at the coast (e.g. yacht cruising and racing, power-boatingandtheuseofpersonalwatercraft),withthisfigurerisingto94%forkitesurfingand100%forsurfing.In2005,water-based activities accounted for 36.7 million coastalvisits10(52.2%ofallwater-basedvisits),risingto47.1million

coastalvisitsin2007(55.2%).In2008,likeallwaterbasedactivities,coastalvisitsfellto35.6millionin2008althoughasaproportionof totalwater-basedactivitiestheyroseto60%.Sincethesurveybegandistinguishingbetweencoastaland inland waters (2005), participation in most activitieshasremainedquiteconsistent.Onlyanglingfromboatsandsub-aquadivinghaveshownanyrealchange,withalargeincreaseinparticipantsinthelasttwoyears.

Recreationalseaanglingisapopularandrelativelywell-studiedactivity.Itiscomparativelywell-quantifiedintermsof number of participants, their expenditure and the jobsassociatedwiththisleisureindustry(Box 12.4).

12.3.3.3 Environmental settings: health goods (mental and physical)Angling and many other activities that occur at sea bringwiththemextraculturalbenefits,inadditiontotheactivityitself. For example, drawing from an internet survey ofthesocialandcommunitybenefitsofangling,Stolk(2009)reportshighlevelsofclubmembershipbyanglers(49%forsea anglers). Respondents stated that club membershipbrings a number of benefits including connecting people,building relational networks, enabling intergenerationalsocialisationandprovidingroutesintovolunteering.Almosta quarter of respondents also reported involvement inenvironmental or aquatic habitat conservation projects,helpingtoengagelocalcommunitiesandraiseawarenessofconservationissues.

Inaddition,spendingtimebytheseaandcoasthaslongbeenrecognised for itsbenefits forhealthandwell-being.For example, Victorian doctors often prescribed visits tothecoasttohastenrecoveryafter longillnesses. It isonlyrecently,however,thatthelinksbetweentheenvironmentandhealthandwell-beinghavebeenmedicallydocumented.

Box 12.4 Recreational sea angling.

InScotland,125,188adultsand23,445childrenparticipatedinseaanglingin2008,equatingto1,540,206seaanglingdaysandatotalexpenditureofapproximately£141million(Radfordet al.2009).Theindustryisthoughttodirectlysupport3,148jobs(FTE),supportingaScottishhouseholdincomeofapproximately£70millionthroughwages,self-employmentincome,rentsandprofits.

ThemostrecentDefrafiguresforEnglandandWales(Crabtreeet al.2004)indicatethat,in2003,1.1millionhouseholdsinEnglandandWalescontainedoneormorememberswhopartookinseaanglingandthemeannumberofseaanglingdaysperyearwas11.3.Theindustrywasestimatedtohaveavalueof£538millionperyearandtosupport18,889jobs(FTE).EstimatesfromtheSouthWestalone(CappellandLawrence2005)suggestthat240,000residentsparticipateinseaangling,plusanadditional750,000anglingdaysareengagedinbyvisitors.Thevalueoftheindustryisestimatedat£165millionandsupportsmorethan3,000jobs.

Allofthesestudiesfoundthatthemajorityofanglersfishedwithin50milesoftheirhomes.Visitinganglers,however,makeaconsiderablecontributiontothetotalanglingexpenditure.Crabtreeet al.(2004)estimatedthisas£192millionperyearor35%ofthetotalfor2002.Thisequatesto1%ofalltourismspendin2002forEnglandandWales(UKTourismSurvey2002).

Althoughexactfiguresareunavailable,theevidencesuggeststhatthepopulationofseaanglershaseitherstabilisedorshownasmallincreasesincetheearly1990s.Themeannumberofdaysspentangling,however,hasdecreasedfrom36daysper

yearinthe1970s,to12daysperyearin1992(Dunn&Potten1994)andto11.3daysperyearin2002(Crabtreeet al.2004).Thesefigureshidethefactthatshoreanglers(Figure 1)aremuchmoreactivethanthosefishingfromacharterboat:13.6daysperyearcomparedto4.96daysperyearrespectively(Crabtreeet al.2004).

Figure 1 An angler watches waves in Whitby, North Yorkshire. Image © ronfromyork, 2011. Used under license from Shutterstock.com

10 Thesefiguresdonotincludethoseforcliff-climbing,coastalwalkingandgeneralleisuretimeatthebeach.

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Thishasmainlyoccurredfor thegreenenvironment (Bird2007) and has demonstrated how interaction with naturecan help reduce stress, increase physical activity andcreate stronger communities.Effort isnow turning to theblue environment, and in 2009 the Blue Gym project wasinitiatedbythePeninsulaMedicalSchool11(UniversitiesofExeter and Plymouth) to examine the health benefits thatcan be gained by spending time in coastal environments(Depledge&Bird2009).

12.3.3.4 Environmental settings: heritage goodsAesthetic and inspirational properties. Even thoughmuch of the marine environment is hidden from view, ithas captured the imaginationofmanyover the centuriesleading to a wealth of literature, for example Coleridge’s‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’, Wordsworth’s ‘By theSea’, John Masefield’s ‘Sea Fever’ and Neil Gunn’s ‘TheSilverDarlings’;worksofart,suchasPocock’sseabattlesandTurner’scoastalviews;andschoolsofartists,includingTheNewlynandSt.IvesSchools.Theseacontinuestobedrawn upon as a source of inspiration with any numberof craft fairs and galleries exhibiting art work usingdriftwood, shells and other marine themes. In addition,it inspires underwater documentaries, such as ‘The BluePlanet’, and has always permeated through children’scartoons,forexample‘Popeye’and‘CaptainPugwash’,theincidenceofwhichhasincreasedinthelastfivetotenyearswithfilmslike‘FindingNemo’,‘SharkTale’and‘SpongeBobSquarePants’.Cultural heritage. Advancements in understanding themarineenvironmenthaveledtoacorrespondingincreaseinpublic interestaboutunderwaterheritage resources (Kaoru& Hoagland 1994) and wider marine issues. To date, noassessmentoftheheritagevalueofthemarineenvironmentinUKwatershasbeenundertaken,butagrowingnumberofmarinesitesarereceivingprotectedstatusbecauseof theirimportancetoUKhistory.Protectionisofferedforanumberof reasons including the presence of ancient monuments,important wrecks and war graves (through the Protectionof Wrecks Act, 1973; the Protection of Military RemainsAct, 1986; and theAncientMonumentsandArchaeologicalAreasAct, 1979).Approximately93marine siteshavebeenprotected (MCA 2010), but this represents only a smallproportionofthe44,000wrecksthathavebeenmappedandcatalogued by Shipwrecks UK (www.shipwrecks.uk.com/info1_2.htm)aroundthecoastofGreatBritainandIreland(anumberwhich is growingasmorewrecksarediscovered).Thelevelofprotectionforsuchsiteshasincreasedsince2002whenEnglishHeritage,Cadw,HistoricScotlandandNorthernIreland Environment Agency took over responsibility formarinearchaeologyinUKwaters.

Currently, protection of the marine environment fallsshortofthatonland.Forexample,thereareonly83inshoreandnineoffshoreSpecialAreasofConservation(SACs)outof a total of 621 designated under the Habitat’s Directive

intheUK.Andthereareonly107SpecialProtectionAreas(SPAs) designated under the Bird’s Directive (out of 262across the UK) in coastal areas, of which, only three areentirelymarine(BaeCaerfyrddin/CarmarthenBay,theOuterThamesEstuaryandLiverpoolBay;www.jncc.gov.uk/page-1414);someofthesesitesarealsoprotectedundertheOSPARConvention. Although there are a small number of Sites/Areas of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs/ASSIs)12 belowthe low water mark (mean low spring water in Scotland),suchasTheWashandMorecombeBay,manycoastalSSSIs/ASSIsdonotofferprotectiontosubtidalmarinelife(JNCC2010). Furthermore, there are only two marine naturereserves (Skomer Island and Strangford Lough) and theyare considered limited in their scope; although a formermarine nature reserve has recently been made into thefirst Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ) designated underthe Marine and Coastal Access Act (2009). This relativeabsence of protection of marine habitats results from theland-basedfocusofmuchexistingconservationlegislationandaprobablelackofunderstandingofthevalueofmarineecosystems.Forexample,theWildlifeandCountrysideAct,1981,throughwhichSSSIsaredesignated,madenoprovisionforSSSIsinthemarineenvironment(Defra2009);SACscanonlybeselectedaccordingtothepresenceof fourmarinehabitats (sandbanks always slightly covered with water,reefs,submarinestructureswithleakinggases,submergedorpartiallysubmergedseacaves)andfourmarinespeciesthatappear inAnnexIIof theHabitatsDirective(commonandgreyseals,bottlenosedolphinandharbourporpoise13).

It isalso importanttonotethatnotallprotectedareasareprotectedbystatutorydesignations.TheRoyalSocietyfor the Protection of Birds (RSPB), for example, owns anumber of nature reserves around the UK coast whichprovide protection for important seabird colonies (e.g.RamseyIsland,NoupCliffs,Rathlin);TheWildlifeTrustsalsoownanumberofcoastalnaturereserves.Neitheroftheseorganisations has dedicated marine reserves, however,largelybecauseoftheinabilitytopurchasetheseabedanddesignateitasareserve.

Protectionofthemarineenvironment,however,willseeanumberofchangesinthenearfutureduetorequirementswritten into theUKMarineandCoastalAccessAct (2009)andtheMarine(Scotland)Act2010(Section12.5).

Enfranchisement and neighbourhood development. Concern over marine issues unites people in a number ofways,contributingtosocialandenvironmentalcitizenshipand neighbourhood development. For example, the NGOSurfersAgainstSewageoriginally formed in1990andhasgrown into an organisation with 10,000 members (SurfersAgainst Sewage 2010). They campaign on a number ofissues,particularlythoserelatingtothehealthofrecreationalwaterusersand rightsofaccess.Theyarealso involved inbeachlitterpicks, inassociationwithMCS’sAdopt-a-Beachprogramme, and in outreach activities within schools inCornwall.TheMCSinitiateditsbeachcleanandlittersurvey

11 RecentlyrenamedasthePeninsulaCollegeofMedicineandDentistry.12 SSSIisaconservationdesignationdenotingaprotectedareainGB.ASSIisaconservationdesignationdenotingaprotectedareainNorthern

Ireland.13 AlthoughotherspecieslistedinAnnexIIoftheHabitatsDirectivedooccurinUKwaters,itisunlikelythatareasawayfromthecoastcanbe

identifiedasessentialtotheirlifeandreproduction.

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activities through its Beachwatch programme in 1993. In1994, Beachwatch involved 2,062 volunteers and covered173 beaches, equating to 204 km of coast. By 2008, thesenumbershadgrownto374beachesand5,219volunteers,butwithaslightreductionincoastallengthsurveyedto175.1km.Theincreaseininterestinbeach-cleaningledMCStodeveloptheAdopt-a-Beachprogrammein1999tohelpitsmemberstocarryoutmoreregularbeachcleansandlittersurveys.

12.3.4 Supporting Services

12.3.4.1 Nutrient cycling There is substantial input of nutrients into UK marinewaters through exchange with offshore waters (NorthAtlantic, English Channel inflow), rivers, groundwater andatmospheric inputs (Jickells 1998). However, the storage,cycling and maintenance of this supply of nutrients andmicronutrients,forexample,carbon,nitrogen,phosphorus,sulphurandmetals,isessentialforlivingmarineorganismsandsupportsalloftheothermarineecosystemservices.

Nutrient cycling encourages productivity, includingfisheries productivity, by making the necessary nutrientsavailable to all levels of food chains and webs. Nutrientcycling is undertaken in many components of the marineenvironment:withinseabedsediments,particularlyintertidalandsubtidalmuds,wherebacterialprocessingofnutrients(e.g. nitrification and denitrification) is facilitated by thephysicalfeeding,burrowingandirrigationactivity,knownas‘bioturbation’,ofinvertebrates(Covichet al.2004;Olsgardet al.2008);withinthewatercolumnwherebacterialnutrientcyclingisfacilitatedviafoodweblinkswithphytoplanktonandzooplanktonandalsofish(Proctoret al.2003;Blackford1997);betweentrophiclevelsandinthecourseofbacterialbreakdownofdetritus(mainlydeadalgalandplantmaterial)inmacroalgalbedsandinsaltmarshes.Withoutrecyclingatthesediment-water interface,mostnutrientswouldbe lostfrom the ecosystem, sinking and becoming buried in thesedimentsthatcovermuchoftheseabed.

Nutrient concentrations are seasonally and annuallyvariable (Butler 1979; Jordan & Joint 1997; Gowen &Stewart 2005). For example, water column nitrate andphosphateconcentrationsmeasuredatanEnglishChannelstation between 1923 and 1987 show a wide range in thenitrate:phosphate ratio (Jordan & Joint 1998). Since thelate 1950s and early 1960s, enrichment of the Irish Seawith anthropogenic nutrients has increased winter levelsofdissolvedinorganicnitrogenandphosphorus(Gowen&Stewart2005).

Climate change mayalter nutrient exchange processesbetween the open waters and the open ocean, and alsoalterwaterstratification,thereforeaffectinginternalnutrientcycling,butthelikelydirectionandextentofchangesarestillpoorlyunderstood(MCCIP2008).Threatstonutrientcyclingintheestuarineandsaltmarshareasprincipallyarisefromincreasinglossofsaltmarshesandintertidalmudflatsduetolandreclamation.Afurtherthreathasbeenexcessnutrientloadingthroughriverrunoffexceedingcapacityforstorageand recycling, although, as stated in Section 12.3.2.1 thisthreatisdiminishing.

12.3.4.2 Biologically mediated habitat Manyorganismsprovidestructuredspaceorlivinghabitatforotherorganismsthroughtheirnormalgrowth,forexample,reef-forminginvertebrates,meadow-formingseagrassbeds,marinealgaeforestsandnetworksofburrowsandholesinthesediment(Beaumontet al.2007).These‘natural’marinehabitatscanprovideessentialfeeding,breeding(spawninggrounds) and nursery space for other plants and animals,which can be particularly important for the continuedrecruitment of commercial and/or subsistence fish andshellfishspecies.Suchhabitatcanalsoprovidearefugeforplantsandanimalsincludingplacestohidefrompredators.Livinghabitatplaysacriticalroleinspecies’interactionsandregulation of population dynamics, and is a pre-requisitefor the provision of many goods and services. In the UK,examplesof livinghabitat includekelpandseagrassbeds,maerlgrounds(calcifiedredseaweed),musselpatchesandcoldwatercoralreefs.

Maerl grounds are predominantly found on the westcoasts,butarealsopatchilydistributedaroundtheUK.Theysupportalargenumberofspecies(Jacksonet al.2004)throughtheirprovisionof refugeand food for juvenile life stagesofcommerciallyimportantshellfish,suchasthequeenscallop(Aequipecten opercularis),(Kamenoset al.2004),andjuvenilegadoid fish such as Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), saithe(Pollachius virens) and pollack (Pollachius pollachius) (Hall-Spenceret al.2003).Seagrasshasonlyapatchydistributionin theUK,butprovidesboth refugeandnurseryhabitat fora number of commercial fish species (Murphy et al. 2000)including Atlantic cod, halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus),flounder(Platichthys flesus)andplaice(Pleuronectes platessa)(Gotceitas et al. 1997), and also commercial shellfish(Davidson&Hughes1998).Kelpandmanyotherspeciesofmarine macrophytes are widely distributed in UK coastalwaters(Birkettet al.1998),supportadiverserangeofspecies(Orthet al.1984;Norderhauget al.2002)andproviderefugeforfishspeciessuchasjuvenileAtlanticcod(Coteet al.2002).

Mussel patches, both living and dead shells, can beused as substratum for colonisation by some species andprovide refuge from predation for others (Gutiérrez et al.2003). Intertidal mussel beds reduce the harsh effects oftemperature, wave action and light, providing favourableconditions for a wide range of associated fauna (Seed &Suchanek1992;Lintas&Seed1994).

Coldwatercoralscanoccurindeepwater,forexample,Lophelia pertusaisfoundofftheUKcoastfromnorthoftheShetlandIslandsintothenorth-eastAtlantic(Wilson1979).This species, and several others, can form colonies whichaggregate over time into reef structures. Cold-water reefs,liketheirtropicalcounterparts,providehabitatsforvariousspecies of invertebrate (Bett 2001; Gage 2001). Fish arepresent in significantlyhigherdensities incoldwatercoralreefsthanthebackgroundenvironment(Bett&Jacobs2000).

Seabedfishingwithtrawlnetsanddredgingfishinggearsisparticularlydestructiveto livingreefswhichtakea longtime to recover since deep-sea corals can be particularlyslow-growing. In 2003, evidence that trawl fishing wasdamaging cold water coral reefs in the deep-sea DarwinMoundsoffthewestcoastofScotlandresultedinlegislationunder the Common Fisheries Policy to protect them.

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Shallowwaterand intertidal livinghabitatsarevulnerabletoinvasivemacroalagespecies(Milneuret al.2008)aswellassmotheringbyopportunisticalgae,suchasUlvaspecies,particularly innutrientenrichedareas(Fletcher1996);atamore local level they can be damaged by boat anchoring,propellerscarring,andchanneldredging.

12.3.5 Wild Species Diversity

12.3.5.1 Flagship speciesFlagshipspeciesare“popularcharismaticspeciesthatserveas symbols and rallying points to stimulate conservationawareness and action” (Leader-Williams & Dublin 2000).Walpole and Williams (2002) state that to be a flagshipspecies“theyneedonlyoperateinthepublicrelationsandfundraising spheres”. Marine flagship species are mainlythe largemegafauna, suchas turtles, sealsandcetaceans(whales,dolphinsandporpoises),aswellassmallerspeciessuchasseabirdsandseahorses.

Scientists and conservationists will often considera wide range of species and habitats as having flagshipstatusastheyareconsideredtobehealthindicatorsforthemarine environment. For example, WWF lists 16 marineflagshipspecies/habitats forUKwaters:harbourporpoise;leatherback turtle; Atlantic salmon; Atlantic cod; long-snouted seahorse; basking shark; common skate; fanmussel;nativeoyster;pinkseafan;saltmarsh;seagrassbeds;maerl beds; horse mussel beds; deep-water mud habitatsanddeep-waterreefs(Hiscocket al.2005).

The significance of flagship species is that theirimportance goes beyond their ecological function and isrelated primarily to their appeal to the wider public. Forexample,relativelysmallpopulationsofharboursealsonthesouthandwestcoastsofEnglandandWales(insomecaseslessthan10individuals)maynothaveahugeimpactfromanecologicalperspective.However,thepopulationsarewellknown to localsandpopularwith tourists, thusprovidinga significant boost to the local economy. Even singleindividuals,suchasstrayingmigratorywhales,cangeneratemediainterestandashort-termboostintourismactivity.InLooe,south-eastCornwall,asinglegreyseal(namedNelsondue to only having oneeye) was such a popular draw forlocalsandtouriststhatwhenitdiedin2003,after20yearsofinhabitingthelocalarea,astatuewaserectedinitshonour(www.bbc.co.uk/cornwall/content/articles/2008/01/23/aboutcornwall_nelsontheseal_feature.shtml).

On a larger scale, the economic benefits of well-establishedpopulationsofflagshipspeciesarederivedfromawiderangeofactivitieslinkedtotheirpresenceincludingdivingandsnorkelling,rock-pooling,boattrips(e.g.whale-and dolphin-watching, shark-spotting and visits to sealcolonies) and aquarium visits. Seabirds are also hugelypopularandamajorfactorinencouragingwildlifetourism.Spectacularseabird ‘cities’andparticular species, suchasthe Atlantic puffin (Fratercula arctica), draw many visitorsand are important sources of income for local economies(RSPB2010;Mitchellet al.2010).

Flagship species can also play a part in encouragingmembershipofsocietiesthatpromotemarineconservation.Manyorganisationspromotingascientificorconservation

interest in the sea (e.g. NGOs, conservation agencies andlearned societies) adopt a ‘charismatic species’ as a logo.ThevalueofUKwildlifeispartiallyreflectedinmembershipofmarinewildlife-relatedcharities.Thereareatleast10intheUKthatareeitherentirely,orstrongly,focusedonmarinelife, with some specifically related to whales, dolphins,seabirds,sealsandseahorses.AsignificantexampleistheRSPBwhichplaysanimportantroleinchampioningmarineconservation;ofits200reserves,53canbeclassifiedasbeingin habitat category ‘Cliffs, beaches and estuary’ providingprotectionforanumberofimportantseabirdcolonies.

12.3.5.2 Sentinels of human health Wildspeciescanactasimportantsentinelsofhumanhealthfor chemicals (Box 12.5a), pathogens and harmful algalblooms(Box 12.5b).Consumptionofmicrobeorbiotoxincontaminated shellfish has the potential for significantimpactsonindividualandpopulationhumanhealth.Recentstudies have highlighted the relatively high disease andhospitalisationriskofconsumingseafood.Between1996and2000,theestimatedannualimpactofseafood-borneillnessin England and Wales was approximately 116,000 cases,77,000 of which were associated with the consumption ofshellfish.Theseshellfishcases led toapproximately13,000visits to General Practitioners, 3,600 hospital days and 16deaths(Adaket al.2005).Thetotalcostofindigenousfood-borneillnessin2008wasestimatedbytheFoodStandardsAgencyforEnglandandWalesatapproximately£1.48billion(usingthe‘valueoffatalitypreventionindex’).Onlyasmallproportion of this would be attributable to contaminatedshellfish consumption. While little historic evidence isavailable for incidence of shellfish-associated food-borneillness, it is assumed that monitoring of UK shellfishharvestingsitesusingtheapproachoutlined(Box 12.5a,b)has led to a reduction in food-borne illnesses associateddirectlywithshellfishconsumption.However, specificdatatosubstantiatethisassumptionisnotavailable.

12.3.5.3 Blue biotechnologySince the 1960s, many pharmaceutical compounds havebeen produced from a diverse range of marine bacteria.Marine micro-organisms continue to be a productive andsuccessful focus for natural products research. Emergingproducts include new medicines, enzymes, and chemicalswith applications in human health and manufacturing, aswellasnewadditivesandcolourantsforthefoodindustry.The marine environment is viewed as an increasinglyimportant source of novel antimicrobial metabolites. Forexample, marine biotechnology forms a significant partof research activities in the European Centre for MarineBiotechnology at the Scottish Association for MarineScience(SAMS), inthenewlyopenedMarineBiodiscoveryCentreatAberdeenUniversity,andatPMLwithinitstradingsubsidiary PML Applications. At these research centres,scientistsareexploiting theirexpertise in thebiologyandchemistryofawidevarietyofmarineorganismstoproducenovelpharmaceuticalproducts,biomedicalresearchtools,anti-foulants, catalysts, high-value extracts for nutritionalsupplements and personal care products. In its currentmanifestation, blue biotechnology development makes

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Pathogenicmicrobialcontaminationandthepresenceofharmfulalgalbloomsareimportantissuesinwatersusedforpotablewatersupplies,recreationandfortheprotectionandpropagationoffish,shellfishandwildlife.Pathogenicmicrobesarepresentinfaecalinputsintoterrestrial,freshwaterandmarineenvironments,andincludeviruses,bacteriaandparasites.Sourcesarebroad-rangingandincludefarmedandwildmammalianandavianfaecalmatter,andhumanfaecalmatterinvariousstatesoftreatment.Thetraceabilityofthesesourceshasbeenhighlightedasaproblem(Simpsonet al.2002;Baker-Austinet al.2009).Pathogensofconcerntohumanhealthcanremainviableandinlargequantitiesintheenvironmentforlongperiodsoftime(e.g.EscherichiacoliO157:H7).Filter-feedingshellfish,suchasclamsandmussels(Figure 1),mayconcentratebacteriaandvirusesfromtheirgrowingwaters.Becausetheyarefrequentlyconsumedraworonlylightlycooked,shellfishcontaminatedwiththesepathogenshavethepotentialtocausehumandisease.

IntheUK,considerableeffortisexpendedinthedirectandindirectmonitoringofpathogenicmicrobesfromfaecalsources,mainlythroughdetectionandquantificationinfarmedandfishedmolluscanshellfish.ThesepathogensaremonitoredunderaframeworkofEUfoodhealthregulations,andso,exceedingagreedlevelsofcontaminationcanleadtocessationoftheharvestofshellfishinaffectedzones.Thus,inveryspecificcircumstances,thepresenceofmicrobialbiodiversitycanbeviewedasanantagonisticproblem,reducingthemarinefoodprovisioningservice.Themeasurementofmicrobialcontaminantsinwaterandinsentinelshellfishprovidesadirectindicatorofhealthrisktohumanconsumersanddemonstratesthecomplexassociationofterrestrial,freshwaterandmarinehabitatsingoverningthislevelofriskinspecificgeographiclocations.

HarmfulAlgalBlooms(HABs)arecausedbymassiveandprolongedovergrowthofalgaeandotherplant-likeorganismssuchasdinoflagellates,diatomsandcyanobacteria.NaturallinkshavebeenmadebetweentheoccurrenceofHABsandeutrophicationinriverine,estuarineandcoastalwaters,andthemanagementofnutrientinputstothewatershedcanleadtosignificantreductionsinHABs(Heisleret al.2008).TheissuessurroundingthepresenceofHABs,andthetoxinsassociatedwiththem,inthemarineenvironmentarebroadlysimilarinscopeandeffecttothosedescribedforthemicrobialcontaminantsofbivalvemolluscsandcontrolsareincludedinthesameregulatoryframeworkonfoodhygieneacrossEurope.Essentially,thesetoxinscanbioaccumulate,particularlywithinfilter-feedingmolluscanshellfish,andcancauseharmtohumanconsumers.DuetoperceivedincreasesinHABoccurrenceandseverity,andtheknownacuteandchronictoxicitytoanimals,plantsandhumans,HABs,andtheirassociatedeffects,haveemergedasaworldwideconcern.

ThemeasurementoftoxinsassociatedwiththeformationofHABsinsentinelshellfishprovidesadirectindicatorofhealthrisktohumanconsumersand,asdescribedformicrobialcontaminantsofshellfish,particularlydemonstratesthecomplexinteractionsbetweenterrestrial,freshwaterandmarinehabitatsthatgovernthelevelofriskinspecificgeographicmarinelocations.

Figure 1 Mussel beds in Exmouth. Photo courtesy of Rob Ellis, Plymouth Marine Laboratory.

Box 12.5a Wild species as sentinels of the environmental impact of chemicals on human health and well-being.

Box 12.5b Wild species as sentinels of the environmental impacts of pathogens and harmful algal blooms on human health and well-being.

Severalso-called‘biologicaleffectsmarkers’arewidelymeasuredinsentinelmarineanimals,suchasfish,tomeasureexposureto,andeffectof,man-madechemicalpollutants.Inthisinstance,thesentinelsareemployedtoindicatepotentialeffectsofsimilarexposuresofhumanpopulationstowaterandproductsarisingfrompollutedareas.IntheUK,livercancerismeasuredinsentinelmarineandestuarineflatfishtoindicateexposuretocarcinogenicchemicals(Figure 1).Theprevalenceofthesecancersdiffersbetweensitesandrangesfrombaseline(lessthan1%)tohigh(morethan20%)atgivenlocations.Duetothemigratorybehaviouroffish(manyspeciesmovebetweenfeedingandbreedinggrounds)andtheslowformationofcancers(overayearormore),ithasbeensomewhatproblematictolinkcancerprevalencedirectlywithman-madechemicalpollutants,particularlyatoffshoresites.However,strongevidenceexistsforthisrelationshipinotherheavilypollutedwaterwaysoftheworld,andthepatternofprevalenceisveryrepeatableinUKwaters,suggestingaclearbasisforcause(Stentiford et al.2009).

OthermarkersutilisedinUKwatersincludethemeasurementoftheeggyolkproteinvitellogenin(VTG)inthebloodofmalefish.Thisproteinisknowntooccurinmalefishexposedtoendocrinedisruptingchemicals(EDCs)andiselevatedinsomeUKestuaries(Kirbyet al.2004)andevenoffshore(Scottet al.2007).Inbothareas,elevatedVTGhasbeenassociatedwiththeoccurrenceofso-called‘intersex’fishatthesesites.Inthesecases,themaletestisispartiallyreplacedwithafemaleovarywhichmostlikelyindicatesanexposuretoEDCsduringcrucialearlylifestages(Stentifordet al.2003,2005).ThelinkagebetweenfreshwaterandestuarineinputsofEDCsandtheeffectsseeninthemarineenvironmentiscurrentlyunstudied.

Figure 1 Liver cancer (on right of picture) in marine flatfish from UK waters. Photo Crown Copyright 2010, reproduced with permission from CEFAS.

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useofonlyverysmallamountsofsampledmaterial,withfurther development for products being predominantlylaboratorybased.

12.3.6 Delivery of Marine Ecosystem Services by Different Components of the Marine Habitat and Associated Fauna We considered the delivery of services and benefits fromeachofthesixCP2habitats: IntertidalSediment, IntertidalRock, Shallow Subtidal Sediment, Subtidal Rock, ShelfSubtidal Sediment, and Deep-sea habitats; as well asadditional habitats which could be considered to havedistinct biodiversity and biogeochemical properties thatmight affect provision of ecosystem services: estuarine(transitional) waters, pelagic mixed water column andpelagicstratifiedwatercolumnandshelfsubtidalrock.Thesameservicestendtobedeliveredbydifferenthabitattypes(i.e.sediment,orrockorpelagic)regardlessofwheretheyare (i.e. intertidal, coastal shelf, transitional waters, deep-sea, etc.). The organisms and their biological activity andfunctions differ between these habitats and locations, butmostmarineenvironmentsdelivermostmarineecosystemservices. The ecosystem processes and intermediateservicesthatunderpinbenefitsaresimilarforprovisioning(Chapter 15), regulating (Chapter 14) and cultural services(Chapter16).However,theamountofservice,andhencethebenefitderived,willvaryaccordingtothehabitat/location.This is the key point for quantifying ecosystem servicedelivery,butmostoftheecosystemserviceandbenefitdataisnotavailableatthedisaggregatedlevelofmarinehabitat/locationtypeintheUK.

Consideration of three key marine communities—pelagic microbial communities (including phytoplanktonandzooplankton),benthicbioturbators(organismslivinginseabedsedimentswhosephysicalactivities,suchasfeeding,burrowingand irrigation,disturbthesediment),andfish—suggests that the number of final benefits delivered by acommunityorassemblageisnotalwaysequivalenttotheircontribution in terms of underpinning intermediate andfinalecosystemservices(Figure 12.15).Forexample,thisencapsulatestheconcernsaboutfutureoceanacidificationimpacts since there is building evidence that these arelikely to affect pelagic microbial communities and benthicorganisms inparticular (Widdicombeet al.2009;Turleyet al.2010).Potentially,althoughweget fewerdirectbenefitsfrom these organisms, all of the underpinning ecosystemprocesses and functions, and intermediate services theyprovide, could be impacted, with catastrophic effects. Theimpactsonfishmayalsobelarge,buttheecosystemimpactsmightnotbesocatastrophic.

12.3.7 Ecosystem Service Interactions with other UK NEA Broad Habitats The ecosystem services and benefits of the CoastalMargins (Chapter 11) are largely shared with, and oftenderivedfrom,theaccessandproximitytomarinehabitats.Examples include: bathing waters adjacent to sand dunesand sandy beaches; marine wildlife-watching (seabirdsandmammals);boating;andhabitatandfoodprovisionforseabirdsinintertidalareas(e.g.beachesandsaltmarshes)

inundatedwithseawater.Similarly,coastalurbanhabitatsenjoymanyofthesebenefitsthroughaccessandproximityto marine ecosystems. Part of the cultural value of theseterrestrial habitats is derived from locally caught food ofmarineorigin.

Inturn,marineecosystemsreceivemuchofthediffusewastefromterrestrialandfreshwaterhabitats,forexample,viariverrunoff,treatedsewageeffluent,urbanstormwateroverflow, and excess nutrient runoff from farmland andair pollution in coastal cities. Therefore, they provide animportant, but largely unquantified, regulating service forthesehabitatsofwasteremovalanddegradation.

Another linkage is that the aquatic medium acts as acarrier for economically important eels and salmon whichmigratebetweenoceans,coastsandriversindifferentphasesoftheirlifecycle.Asjuveniles,eelsmigratefromtheoceansviacoastalwatersintorivers,wheretheygrowtoadulthood,and then migrate back to the sea to reproduce again. Incontrast,salmonreproduceinriversandmigrateasjuvenilesto the sea,where theygrow toadulthood, returning to theriverswheretheyspawnedtoreproduceagainthemselves.

12.4 Trade-offs and Synergies Among Marine Ecosystem Goods and ServicesDelivery of many marine ecosystem services is stronglyinterlinked and synergistic, as would be expected whenconsidering ecosystem services in such a large andinterconnectedhabitatastheUK’sestuarine,coastal,shelfanddeep-seawaters.Thebiologicalactivityandecosystemfunctionsofthesame,orverysimilar,organismsunderpinwasteregulationanddetoxification,climateregulation,andnutrient cycling in the water column or in the sedimentseabed (Section12.3.6). In turn, cultural services, suchasleisureandrecreation,aredependentonclean,functioningseas, so the functions of these organisms also underpincultural services. Similarly, the habitats that preventdisturbance by mitigating the hazards of flooding andwave damage also provide supporting habitat for otherspecies,andareconstituentpartsofhabitatsforleisureandrecreation. Generally, the flagship wild species are thosewhich underpin wildlife-watching activities and pertainto marine cultural benefits. Regionally based fisheriesproviding food also support local tourism and, therefore,culturalservices.

Yet excessive fish extraction is unsustainable andimpactsonothercomponentsoftheecosystembyaffectingtrophic(foodweb)structureanddamagingseabedhabitats.Hence, excessive fishing potentially negatively affectsdeliveryoftheotherservices.Trade-offsoccur,toagreaterorlesserextent,betweenmanymarineecosystemservicesand foodprovisionbyfisheries.Forexample,birdwatching

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is a popular leisure activity and public engagement withseabirds and mammals is evident (Section 12.3.5), butthere has been a conflict with fisheries overexploitation.Commercialfisheriesforsmallfishspecies,suchassandeels,mayreducefoodavailabilityforseabirds(Frederiksen et al.2004;Frederiksenet al.2007;Wanless et al.2005),marinemammalsandpredatoryfishes(MacLeodet al.2007).Poorbreedingsuccessatmanyseabirdcolonieshasbeenrelatedtoalackofsandeelpreyresources,althoughitislikelythatclimate change is also contributing to a reduction in thenumberandqualityofpreyfish(Mitchellet al.2010).

Inthewatersoffsouth-eastScotland,asandeelfisherythat operated in the 1990s significantly depressed adultsurvivalandbreedingsuccessofblack-leggedkittiwakesatadjacentcoloniescomparedwithyearsprior to thefisheryopeningandafteritwasclosed.Since2000therehasbeena ban on sandeel fishing off eastern Scotland and north-eastEngland.Iffishingisresumedtolevelsthatsignificantlyreducelocalsandeelstock, itwouldpotentiallyexacerbatereductionsinbreedingsuccessandsurvivalthatareprobablynowbeingcausedbyincreasesinseasurfacetemperatureasaresultofclimatechange(Mitchellet al.2010).

Atthesametime,fisherieswerebenefitingsomeseabirdsby providing them with food as discharged offal anddiscardedundersizefish,and thus, supportedpopulationsof scavenging species (e.g. great skua, northern fulmar)above levels that natural food sources could sustain.However, overfishing and the introduction of measures toconservefishstockshavereducedtheamountofdiscardswhichmayhave contributed toapopulationdownturnofnorthernfulmarsandotheroffshoresurface-feederssincethemid-1990s(Mitchellet al.2010).

Bottomtrawlingfisheriesandsomeshellfisheriescausehabitat damage and hence substantial changes to marineecosystemsincludingthedisturbanceoftheseafloorleadingto mortality of benthic organisms, changes in benthiccommunitycompositionandre-workingofsediment (Fridet al. 1999; Kaiser et al. 2006). This changes the levels ofsupporting services, such as nutrient cycling and habitatprovision(Percivalet al.2005;Bremneret al.2005;Olsgardet al.2008;Cesar&Frid2009),andthere isevidencethatthesechangeshavetakenplaceoverthelast60years(Fridet al.2000).Changesinmarinebenthiccommunitiescanleadtoareductioninthefoodavailabletowaterbirds,whichhasprobablyresultedinchangesinnumbersanddistributionofseaducks,diversandwaders(Mitchellet al.2010).

Seals and cetaceans, such as dolphins, are popularwith wildlife-watchers, making an important contributiontoculturalservices,aswellasbeingflagshipwildspecies.However, theyareviewedbyfishermenascompetitors forfish stocks for human consumption, and can be trappedand damaged by nets. Similarly, recreational anglingis sometimes viewed as competing for resource withcommercialfisheriesforfoodprovision.Somerecreationalfishermen consider that overexploitation by commercialfisherieshasreducedtheoverallsizeoftrophyfishthattheytarget. Marine habitats are strongly linked to inland andcoastal habitats including farmland, coastal urban citiesand freshwater (Section 12.1.4). Application of fertilisers

and livestock manure on farmland promotes increasedterrestrial food provision, but excess nutrients and alsonutrient-richeffluentfromthestorageofsilageareconveyed,via freshwater runoff, into estuarine and coastal areas.For example, on an annual basis freshwaters contributeabout 50% of the total external supply of dissolvedinorganicnitrogentotheIrishSea(Gowenet al.2005).Theenrichmentofmarinewaterbynutrientscausesacceleratedgrowthofmacroalgaeandmicroalgae. In shallowcoastaland intertidal waters, the macroalgae can smother thesoftsediments,impedingtheflowofoxygenandnutrientstoand fromthesediment,andaffectingmarine life livingwithinthesediment.Whenthemicroalgaeandmacroalgaedie, their decomposition by microbial communities canfurtherdepleteoxygeninthesedimentandoverlyingwater,causinghypoxiaandevenanoxia,whichhaveadeleteriouseffectonthewaterquality. Eutrophicationisoneofthemajorthreatstothehealthof estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystems around theworld. The major pressures in the UK occur in the east,southandnorth-westofEnglandwhereinputsofnutrientsof anthropogenic origin (notably nitrate and phosphatefromagriculture,butalsourbanwastewatersources)haveresultedinnutrientenrichmentofcoastalwaters(Chapter4inUKMMAS2010).UKmarinewatersasawholedonotsuffer from eutrophication problems, but some estuarineareasarenutrientenrichedandareatriskfrom,orcurrentlyaffectedby,eutrophication. Eutrophication can reduce and change marinebiodiversity through the mortality of fish, shellfish andinvertebrates,whichwillimpactonmostmarineecosystemservices.Italsoencouragesmacroandmicroalgalblooms,whichmaybevisuallyunattractiveandreduceleisureandrecreationbenefits.Eutrophicationcanpotentiallyincreaseblooms of harmful toxin-producing algae (harmful algalblooms; HABs), which can accumulate in filter-feedingshellfishorhumansthroughconsumptionofcontaminatedshellfish, thus impacting on the human health benefits ofmarine food provision (Box 12.5a,b). However, recentstudies(Gowenet al.2009)indicatethattheabundanceofHABspeciesthatoccurintheUKandIrishcoastalwatersis not related to anthropogenic nutrient enrichment. Ifpoisoned shellfish are consumed, either because of ascreening failure or unregulated harvesting, the humanconsequences can be severe, ranging from diarrhoea, tomemory loss, paralysis and death. Harmful algal bloomsmayharmfishthroughfoodchaineffects:fishmayconsumecontaminated algae either directly or indirectly by eatingprey that have consumed contaminated algae. This canimpactfoodprovisionthroughreducedcatchesinthecaseofdirectkills (e.g.fishandshellfish)orthroughclosureofwild and aquaculture shell-fisheries when accumulatedtoxinshaverenderedtheharvestedshellfishunfitforhumanconsumption. Theuseofthemarineecosystemforwastedisposalanddetoxification services can also impact on food provisionwhen it leads to bioaccumulation of pollutants, such asheavy metals and organic compounds, through the foodchain.Thisimpactsonsealifebutalsopotentiallyonhumanhealthwhenfishandshellfishareconsumed.

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12.5 Options for Sustainable Management

Acommonparadigmamongstscientistsdiscussingmarinemanagement has been that we do not manage marineecosystems; rather we manage human activities withinthem. However, fundamentally we rarely understand thebiodiversity or ecosystem implications of managementdecisions,letalonetheimpactsonecosystemsservices.Itisarguablewhether,withtheexceptionoffisheries,wemanageanyactivity in themarineenvironmentwithrespect to theprovision of ecosystem services and their benefits. In thecaseoffisheries,itisonlyveryrecentlythatourmanagementstrategiesareshowingevenslightsignsofsuccess. The biodiversity and habitats of 80–90% of the UK’smarine seabed remainsunmappedand is knownonly viainterpolation from the sites that have been surveyed andsampled:wedonotknowindetailwhatthecharacteristicsoftheseabedareintermsofsedimentorrockhabitat,whatorganisms live there, or how they change temporally. Weneedamuchmorecomprehensiveevidencebasetoproperlyquantify ecosystem services in a meaningful way thatsupportspolicyandnewmarinelegislation.

12.5.1 Policy and LegislationCurrently, this is a time of massive change in EU and UKlegislation with respect to marine ecosystems due to therecentintroductionandforthcomingimplementationoftheEU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), the UKMarineandCoastalAccessActand theMarine (Scotland)Act. The MSFD seeks toput in placemeasures toachievegood environmental status in EU waters by 2020. The EUandnationallegislationrecognisethatthereareincreasingcommercial and leisure uses of marine ecosystems, forexample, a growth in shipping for transport, marinerenewable energy production, gas pipe and cable-laying,recreational boating, fishing, scuba diving and wildlife-watching, as well as traditional activities such as fishing(Figure 12.16).UKmarinewatersareviewedasbecomingincreasingly crowded,butunlikeon land, thereare few, ifany,definedpropertyrightsregardingthewatercolumnandtheseabedbeyond12nm,somanagementhasonlyrecentlybecome spatially oriented. Within the new legislationthe ecosystem and its biodiversity is viewed as being ofsufficientimportancethatitmustbeconsideredequallywitheconomicandsocialissuestobemanaged(asembodiedbytheecosystemapproach).

12.5.2 Conservation, Protected Areas and Fisheries ManagementProtection within the marine environment around the UKwill see dramatic change in the near future. The Marineand Coastal Access Act (2009) and the Marine (Scotland)Act 2010 (and the forthcoming Northern Ireland MarineBill) require the designation of an ecologically coherentnetwork of (MCZs), or Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) inScotland,by2012.ThisisalsoarequirementundertheEUMarineStrategyFrameworkDirective.TheMCZswillprotect

Ecosystem processes/Intermediate services Final ecosystem services Benets

Gas & Climateregulation

Wild capturefish & shellfish

Carbonsequestration

DMS*production

Food production

Raw material production e.g. fishmeal

Seawater detoxification

Unseen foundationof ecosystem support

Safe recreationalwater

Biotechnologyproducts

Fixation of carbon

Nutrient cycling

Primary & secondaryproduction

Detoxification of pollutants

Maintenance of biodiversity (insurance)

Aquaculture

Other capital inputs People

Pelag

ic m

icrob

ial di

versi

ty

Final ecosystem services Benets

Climateregulation


Carbonsequestration

Coastal flood & storm defence

Food production




Flood protection

BenthicproductionBurial of carbonContol of sediment mobility & stabilityOxygenation& flushing of sediment

Mircobiallymediated nutrient cycling

Nutrient cycling

Microbially mediated detoxification of pollutants

Wave bufferingMaintenance of biodiversity (insurance)

Burial & buffering ofpollutants

Aquaculture


Bent

hic Bi

otub

ators


ClimateregulationWild capturefish & shellfish

Carbonsequestration

Food production


Recreation- anglingRecreation- scuba diving

Existence

Health & wellbeing

Maintenance of biodiversity(insurance)

Production

Supports seabirds& mammals

Aquaculture


Fish b

iodive

rsity

Recreation- Wildlife watching

Ecosystem processes/Intermediate services





Carbonsequestration

DMS*production

Food production






Fixation of carbon

Nutrient cycling




Aquaculture


Pelag

ic m

icrob

ial di

versi

ty


Climateregulation


Carbonsequestration


Food production




Flood protection



Nutrient cycling




Aquaculture


Bent

hic Bi

otub

ators



Carbonsequestration

Food production



Existence

Health & wellbeing


Production


Aquaculture


Fish b

iodive

rsity




Figure 12.15 Schematic diagram of a selection of ecosystem processes and intermediate services from three key marine communities to illustrate how ecosystem processes are linked to final ecosystem services and the benefits they generate for people: a) pelagic planktonic community; b) benthic bioturbators; and c) fish. Schematic follows the philosophy of the UK NEA Conceptual Framework (Chapter 2), and is adapted from Fisher et al. (2008). *DMS is dimethyl sulphide which is a climate regulating gas (Charlson et al. 1987, Liss et al. 1997).

b) bioturbators

a) planktonic community




Carbonsequestration

DMS*production

Food production






Fixation of carbon

Nutrient cycling




Aquaculture


Pelag

ic m

icrob

ial di

versi

tyFinal ecosystem services Benets

Climateregulation


Carbonsequestration


Food production




Flood protection



Nutrient cycling




Aquaculture


Bent

hic Bi

otub

ators



Carbonsequestration

Food production



Existence

Health & wellbeing


Production


Aquaculture


Fish b

iodive

rsity




c) fish

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12.5.3 Management of Human Activities and Future Environmental ChangeThe development of marine planning, as proposed in theMarineandCoastalAccessActandtheMarine(Scotland)Act, shouldbean importantmechanism tohelpmaintainor improve the quality of marine habitats, integrating theneeds for sustainableuseby industrywithenvironmentalprotection objectives. They should enable proactivemanagement of marine ecosystems. It is imperative thatsuch plans consider not only the components of marineecosystems in termsofbiodiversityandhabitats,butalsoin terms of ecosystem functioning and the provision ofecosystemservices.Theuseofmonetaryandnon-monetarytechniquesforthevaluationofecosystemserviceswillaidtheprocessofconsideringtheimpactson,andalsobenefitsfor,ecosystemsofmarinedevelopmentwithinmarineplans.

With the extent of human activity in the marineenvironmentincreasing,itislikelythatstrongergovernancewillbeneededincludingincreasedstakeholderinvolvement,improved enforcement of legislation and possiblyreconsiderationofpropertyrights.

The marine environment is a dynamic and changinghabitat, not least because of the rapid impacts of climatechangeand theanticipatedonsetof the impactsofoceanacidification. It is also highly interconnected. Planningwill need to consider not only the current spatial impactsof different human uses of, and activities in, the marineenvironment, but also the future implications. This isparticularly important with respect to deciding on thelocations of protected or conservation areas, and ofpermanent structures such as wind turbines and otherrenewable energy devices. Spatially resolved modellingtoolsarelikelytobeabletoassistinthisprocess.

Links between deep-sea, shelf, coastal, estuarine,freshwater and terrestrial systems must be considered inthese plans. A further complication is that most relevantlegislation divides the UK marine area into inshore andoffshore parts. This is because international and EU lawusually places different rights and obligations on statesin respect of their territorial waters (0–12 nm). There is aneedtore-invigorateintegratedcoastalzonemanagementin the light of the new marine legislation so that coastalmanagementandmarinemanagementarefullyaligned.

12.6 Future Research and Monitoring GapsAlthough recent National reports (Charting Progress 2 in2010,StateofScotland’sSeas in2008)havegathereda lotofevidence,thecharacteristicsandbiodiversityofmanyUKmarinehabitats,particularlythosewhicharesubtidal,arestillunknown and unmapped, and marine ecosystem servicesare poorly quantified. We need to understand and quantifytheecologicallinksbetweenmarinebiodiversity,ecosystemfunction and provision of ecosystem goods and services,

Figure 12.16 The marine environment is becoming increasingly busy, sometimes causing conflict in the use of space. Plymouth Sound. Photo courtesy of Trevor Burrows Photography, Plymouth Marine Labratory.

nationallyimportantmarinewildlife,habitats,geologyandgeomorphology, and will focus on all marine wildlife, notjustthreatenedspecies;whiletheScottishMPAswillfocuson marine biodiversity and nationally important marinehistoricassets.

Therearealsocalls fromsomescientistsandNGOs toimplementclosedareanetworkstofulfilthesamefunctionforfishstocks.TheEUCommonFisheriesPolicyisabouttoberevisedanditishopedthatitwillbecomemoreharmoniouswith the aspirations of the MSFD. Important progress isbeing made in UK fisheries management to improve thestatus of commercial fish stocks; for example, real-timeclosures,suchasthevoluntaryclosuresintheNorthSeatoavoidareasofhighcodabundance(www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/marine/Sea-Fisheries/17681/closures),andchangestogear,suchastheuseofsquare-meshedescapepanelsinnetstohelpnon-targetspeciesescape.

Some inshore areas around the UK are now closed totowedgearthroughfisheriesbylaws.Forexample,nofishingisallowedouttothreenauticalmilesatWhitby,north-eastEnglandandsomesealochsinScotlandareclosedtobenthictrawlstoprotectdeepmudsediments.Otherareasthatareclosed throughconservationdesignations toprotect slow-growing features include a SAC designated near Arisaig,westernScotlandtoprotectmearlbeds,and60nm2ofLymeBayinsouth-westEnglandwhichhasbeenclosedtobenthictrawlsandscallopdredgingtoprotectfragilereefs.

Itisnotyetknownwhetherthesemeasureswillleadtosignificant reductions in the levels of physical disturbancetoseabedhabitats.Itisunlikelythatthestatusofimpactedbenthic habitats will improve without further directedmanagement measures to protect the seabed, particularlywhere they support long-lived, fragile and/or functionallyimportantspecies.

The UK has direct control of inshore fisheries (within6nmof thecoast) thatmainlyutilise smallvesselsof lessthan15m in length.NewGlobalPositioningSystem (GPS)tracking technologies tomonitor fishingvessel effort (Box 12.2) shouldbeimplementedwidelyonthesevesselswithaviewtostrengtheningmanagementstrategiesandmeasures.

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and to understand the effects of human impacts on theselinks.SuchknowledgewouldsupportmoreeffectivemarineplanningandlicensingofactivityinUKwaters,encouragingthesustainableuseofmarinehabitatsandthemaintenanceofclean,healthy,productiveandbiologicallydiverseseas.

AlistofgapsinknowledgewaspreparedbyAustenet al.(2008)andmanyoftheissuesarestillrelevant,particularlywithrespecttotheneedtosupportmarinespatialplanningforsustainablemanagement:■ Spatial and temporal ecology of marine systems—

informationisneededonthescalesatwhichunderlyingmarineecosystemprocessesoccur,howtheserelatetothescalesatwhichservicesaredelivered,andwhatthelinkages are between them. Marine landscape ecologystillneedsconsiderableresearcheffortifitistoreachthelevelofunderstandingwehaveforterrestrialecosystems.

■ Improved understanding of non-coastal and sub-tidal marine ecosystems—empirically derived theoryconcerningthenatureofmarinebiodiversity-ecosystemfunctioning relationships needs to be tested undernatural conditions and in a wide variety of marinehabitats,particularlynon-coastalandsubtidal.

■ Relationship between function (and/or biodiversity), process and provision of services—a diversity ofecological processes underpin the provision of marineecosystem services, but the relationships betweenthemneedstobequantifiedandthekeyprocessesandelementsofbiodiversitydetermined.

■ Development of modelling and predictive tools to link biodiversity to function, provision of serviceand value—apredictivecapacitytoanticipatetheimpactsofhuman activity on the provision of marine ecosystemservices and benefits is required to support policy andmanagement.Modelsofmarinesystemsexistbut theyneed to better incorporate biodiversity and ecosystemservices,andtheyneedtobemadeoperational.

■ The role of biodiversity in providing resilience in the provision of ecosystem services—theextenttowhichmarine biodiversity facilitates resistance to change inthe delivery of marine ecosystem services, as well astheabilityofmarinebiodiversitytorecoverandrestoredeliveryofservices,needstobeunderstood.

■ Limitations (‘tipping points’) of marine biodiversity—theremaybeauniformrelationshipbetweenbiodiversityandtheprovisionofmarineecosystemservicesortheremaybecrucialnon-linearitiesandtippingpointsatwhichdelivery isno longerpossible.These relationships,andthelimitsatwhichmarinebiodiversitycanstillprovideaservice,needtobedefined.

■ Defining the best mechanisms to afford the protection of goods and services—the species,habitatsandfunctionsthatarecriticaltomaintainandenhancethedeliveryofmarineecosystemservicesneedto be identified. This will help to define and prioritisemanagementmechanismsandpolicystrategiesfortheirprotectionand restoration.Knowledge that can informsuch management priorities is particularly limited insubtidalzones.

■ Development and application of technology to support research—some underwater technology is

already available but has not been fully utilised. Forexample, thereare technologies tosupportunderwaterhabitat-mapping where data is remotely collected, yetmuchof theseabedremainsunmapped.Consequently,wedonotknowwhatthecharacteristicsoftheseabedareorwhatorganismslivethere.

■ Building environmental accounts for the services associated with marine systems—tosupportpolicyandmanagementweneedtoclearlydescribeandquantifytheprocesses that impactuponmarineecosystemservices,thebenefitstheygenerateandtheirvalue.

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Documents

Chapter 12: Marine - UNEP-WCMC