Chapter 15 Context of Development: The Family. UNDERSTANDING THE FAMILY Most important function is socialization –Process by which children acquire the

Chapter 15 Context of Development: The Family

UNDERSTANDING THE FAMILY

• Most important function is socialization– Process by which children acquire the

beliefs, motives, values, and behaviors considered appropriate in their society


• The Family as a Social System– Parents influence children– Children influence behavior of their parents– Families are networks of reciprocal

relationships• Happily married mothers are more likely

to have securely attached children• Children do best when couples coparent

• Figure 15.1. A model of the family as a social system. As implied in the diagram, a family is bigger than the sum of its parts. Parents affect infants, who affect each parent and the marital relationship. Of course the marital relationship may affect the parenting that the infant receives, the infant’s behavior, and so on. Clearly, families are complex social systems. FROM BELSKY, 1981.


• Families are Developing Systems– Developmental change occurs within the

family system– The family changes with the development

of the family members– Families are embedded within larger

cultural and subcultural contexts• Affect how family functions are carried

out

• Table 15.1 Changing Family Systems in the United States. Data compiled from: Bengston, 2001; Cabrera, et al., 2000; Hetherington & Jodl, 1994; Hetherington et al., 1999; Meckler, 2002; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000; 2002.


• Conclusions about Understanding Families– Nuclear family with a breadwinning father,

a housewife mother, and at least 2 children is a stereotype (12% of families)

– Families as social systems include dual-career, single parent, blended, and multigenerational families

PARENTAL SOCIALIZATION DURING CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

• Two Major Dimensions of Parenting– Parental acceptance/responsiveness

• Amount of support and affection–Associated with secure attachment–Prosocial orientation–High self-esteem–Strong sense of morality


– Parental demandingness/control• Amount of regulation or supervision

–Appropriate degree of regulation is tied to parental acceptance/ responsiveness


• Four Patterns of Parenting– Authoritarian

• Very restrictive, expect obedience, do not explain why limits exist

–Raise children with less favorable developmental outcomes

• Figure 15.2 Two major dimensions of parenting. When we cross the two dimensions, we come up with four parenting styles. BASED ON MACCOBY & MARTIN, 1983.


– Authoritative• Controlling but flexible, make reasonable

demands, provide rationales for limits• Rational and democratic

–Tend to raise highly competent, well-adjusted children


– Permissive• Accepting but lax, few demands, little

monitoring–Raise children with less favorable

developmental outcomes


– Uninvolved• Extremely lax and undemanding• May have rejected their children• May be overwhelmed and cannot devote

energy to child rearing–Raise children who are aggressive,

selfish, rebellious »Perform poorly in school»Are likely to abuse drugs


– Behavioral Control versus Psychological Control• Firm behavioral control tends to lead to

well-behaved children• Psychological control – guilt, shame, or

withholding affection–Poor developmental outcomes


– Parent Effects or Child Effects?• Parent effects model

–Influences run from parent to child»Supported by research, suggests

stressing “do’s” not “don’ts”• Child effects model

–Children influence their parents»Also supported by research –

difficult children alter caregiving


• Transactional model–Socialization is due to reciprocal

influence»Research shows parenting

influences children more than children influence parenting

»Children do affect parents

SOCIAL CLASS AND ETHNIC VARIATIONS IN CHILDREARING

• Social Class Differences in Child Rearing– Economically-disadvantaged and working-

class parents • Stress obedience and respect for

authority• Are more restrictive and authoritarian• Reason with their children less• Show less warmth and affection


• Differences due to–Increased psychological distress–Increased marital conflict–Loss of emotional security

»Child adjustment problems»Negatively affects parenting

–Also due to attributes viewed as successful in the workplace

• Figure 15.3 A model of the relationships among family economic distress, patterns of parenting, and child/adolescent adjustment. ADAPTED FROM CONGER ET AL., 1992; DAVIES & CUMMINGS, 1998.


• Ethnic Variations in Child Rearing– Collectivistic cultures tend to stress

• Maintaining close ties to relatives• Strong respect for authority• Proper and polite behaviors

– Different behaviors can be interpreted differently in other cultures

– Middle-class authoritative parenting may not be optimal in all situations

THE INFLUENCE OF SIBLINGS AND SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS

• Changes in the Family Systems when a New Baby Arrives– Mother devotes less warm and playful

attention to the older child– Child may become difficult and disruptive– Sibling rivalry often develops


• Sibling Relationships Over the Course of Childhood– Fairly quick adjustment to new sibling– Conflict is normal, and declines with age

• Less if parents get along• Less if parents monitor children’s

activities• Less if one child is not favored


• Positive Contributions of Sibling Relationships– Older siblings provide caretaking services

to younger brothers/sisters– Siblings as Providers of Emotional Support

• With age, protect and confide in each other


– Siblings as Models and Teachers• Younger siblings learn from older

siblings–Direct instruction and modeling

• Older siblings improve in academic aptitude from tutoring younger siblings


• Characteristics of Only Children– Relatively high in self-esteem and

achievement orientation– More obedient and slightly more

intellectually competent– Likely to establish good relations with

peers

DIVERSITY IN FAMILY LIFE

• Adoptive Families– Sensitivity of parents predicts attachment

classifications same as for biologically related children

– Adoptees do have • More learning and emotional problems• Higher rates of delinquency

–Environmental incompatibilities–Abuse/neglect prior to adoption


– Adopted children fare better in adoptive homes than foster care

– Transracially adopted children also do well intellectually

– Open adoption – information about or ability to contact birth parents• Positive outcomes


• Donor Insemination (DI) Families– Fertile woman receiving sperm from an

unknown donor• Children were as well adjusted as

biological or adopted children• Mothers were warmer, more sensitive• Fathers were less involved in discipline,

but as involved in other aspects of parenting


• Gay and Lesbian Families– Parents are as mentally healthy as any

other type of parent– No more likely to molest their children– Children are not at risk of being

stigmatized– Children are no more likely to become

homosexual

• Figure 15.4 Sexual orientation of adult children raised by lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and single-parent heterosexual mothers. (Notice that children with homosexual parents are just as likely to display a heterosexual orientation as children raised by heterosexuals. ADAPTED FROM BAILEY ET AL., 1995; GOLOMBOK & TASSER, 1996.


• Family Conflict and Divorce– 40-50% of marriages end in divorce– More than half of children will spend time in

a single-parent home


– Before the Divorce: Exposure to Marital Conflict• Conflict produces distress• Anxiety, depression, conduct disorders

–Direct effects–Indirect effects


• After the Divorce: Crisis and Reorganization– 1 year crisis period

• Both parents experience emotional and practical difficulties

–Psychologically distressed individuals are not the best parents

»Mothers become more coercive»Fathers tend to be permissive


• Children’s initial reactions vary as a function of gender and age

–Preschool/early grade school »Visible signs of distress»May think they caused divorce

–Older children»Tend to withdraw»Become involved in delinquent

behavior


–Impact of divorce tends to be stronger and longer lasting for boys

»May do better if father is the custodial parent

»Girls may experience more covert distress, more difficult to see

»Girls may become involved in early sexual behaviors


• Long Term Reactions to Divorce– Most children show healthy patterns of

adjustment• May still have lingering after-effects

–Perceived loss of closeness with parents

–Fear own marriages will be unhappy


– Better for a child to be in a stable single-parent home than a conflict-ridden two-parent home

– Not all divorcing families experience all of the difficulties mentioned previously

Documents

Chapter 15 Context of Development: The Family. UNDERSTANDING THE FAMILY Most important function is socialization –Process by which children acquire the