Chapter 16: The Church and the Age of Enlightenment THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

Chapter 16: The Church and the

Age of EnlightenmentTHE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

ANTICIPATORY SET Review the quote from Pope Bl. John Paul II (p. 580),

and then discuss the following questions:

What is the supreme question? What do they say is really the question, and who are

they? What does the Church maintain is the answer to the

supreme question?

1. King Louis’s France (pp. 580–587)

BASIC QUESTIONS How did King Louis XIV become the absolute monarch of

France? What are Gallicanism, Jansenism, and Quietism? What was the effect of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes? KEY IDEAS With the help of Cardinal Richelieu and his successor Cardinal

Mazzarin, King Louis XIV created a centralized, bureaucratic government.

Gallicanism, which posits that the French Church is independent of the Pope who is in turn inferior to an Ecumenical Council; Jansenism, a kind of Calvinism; and Quietism, which asserts that the soul should remain completely passive and not make any effort to do good or avoid evil, abounded in France during the seventeenth century.

With the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Louis XIV removed the Huguenots from France.


FOCUS QUESTIONS According to Hobbes’s Leviathan, why does human nature

require a strong political structure? Hobbes paints a grim portrait of human beings as selfish beasts who,

left to their own devices, lead lives that can only be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Hobbes thought that the state must impose unity from an absolute authority to control the natural human tendency toward mutual hostility.

How does Hobbes’s view of the fallen state of man conflict with

the Church’s teaching? Original Sin has damaged the original human condition; however, with

God’s grace and the proper exercise of free will, every person can cooperate with grace to express true love of neighbor. This view is permeated by hope and optimism in contrast to Hobbes’s pessimistic view of fallen human nature.


GUIDED EXERCISE Discuss the following question:

Based on last night’s reading, is Hobbes’s understanding of human nature correct?


FOCUS QUESTIONS How did Cardinal Richelieu both divide Germany and unite

France? Though both nations were composed of hundreds of feudal

provinces, Cardinal Richelieu made it his business to keep the German states fairly independent, which precluded any centralized military action, while in France, he increased the monarch’s powers and decreased those of the Protestant princes.

Why was Cardinal Richelieu against the Edict of Nantes? He did not support its creation of a de facto Protestant state

within a Catholic nation because such a division would prevent national cohesion.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How did the Fronde affect King Louis XIV’s views

toward the nobles of France? The rebellion of the Fronde convinced the young king

that he had to gain control of the powerful noble factions within France.

Why were King Louis XIV’s good graces essential? Since he held absolute power, to get ahead in France, a

person had to please him.


FOCUS QUESTION How did King Louis XIV create absolute power for

himself? He dismissed the great lords of France from

participation in the government. By freeing them from taxation, he also precluded them from interfering in his administration. Instead, he appointed lower nobles who were grateful for the undreamt-of prestige and gave him unfailing loyalty.


GUIDED EXERCISE Discuss the following question:

Why is Louis XIV’s absolutism a recipe for abuse that could have led easily to revolution?


FOCUS QUESTION What was the Gallican tradition? This longstanding view held that the French Church

should be independent of the papacy. In effect, it meant that secular rulers should appoint bishops, control Church revenues, and even determine doctrines and the practice of the Faith.


FOCUS QUESTIONS How did King Louis XIV show devotion to the

Faith? He attended Mass daily, said the Rosary, and in other

ways exemplified an authentic spirituality. Why did King Louis XIV believe he should rule the

Church in France? Louis XIV believed that everyone in France should be

subject to him, both laity and clergy.


GUIDED EXERCISE Analyze the illustration of King Louis XIV on page 583

using the following question:

How does this portrait illustrate extremes of power and vanity?


FOCUS QUESTIONS What were some ways that Louis XIV showed respect for

the papacy? Louis upheld the papal censure of the Sorbonne for

condemning papal teaching on infallibility. He also abandoned one of his minister’s policies to limit the number of priests in France when the Pope condemned the move.

What was the biggest example of Louis XIV’s disregard

for papal authority? The king ordered the Four Gallican Articles to be taught in all

the seminaries of France.


FOCUS QUESTION What compromise did the Pope and the king reach

over the Gallican articles? Louis XIV agreed to disavow the Declarations of 1682

and end the mandatory teaching of the Four Gallican Articles. In return, the Pope agreed to appoint all the bishops Louis had nominated for vacant sees in France.


GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to identify the Four Gallican

Articles from the text.


GUIDED EXERCISE Discuss the sidebar “The Courtly Life of the Sun King”

(p. 585) using the following questions:

Did the Sun King have an ideal life? Would you like to live a life like his? What did his life lack? What dangers lie in this life?


FOCUS QUESTIONS Which early Church Father did Bishop Jansen

study devoutly? He studied St. Augustine of Hippo. What did Jansen think he had uncovered? Jansen thought that he found an overlooked theory of

grace in the writings of St. Augustine; this was published posthumously in Augustinus (1640).


FOCUS QUESTION Who were the three greatest promoters of

Jansenism? Jansen himself did not promote his theory but left it to

the Church to decide its truth. After Jansen’s death, Jansenism was promoted by his friend Jean-Ambroise; Antoine Arnauld, a French philosopher; and the mathematician Blaise Pascal.


GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table on Jansenism and

Catholicism.



FOCUS QUESTIONS

How did King Louis XIV deal with Port Royal? He had the convent razed and the bodies in the cemetery exhumed and

placed in unmarked graves, presumably so no one could venerate them.

What is heretical about Quietism? Quietists advocate that each soul should totally abandon itself to God

and make no personal effort, not even the effort to fight temptations. It is heretical because everyone should cooperate with grace to avoid evil and choose good.

What did the revocation of the Edict of Nantes mean for the Huguenots?

Huguenots who would not convert to Catholicism were effectively banished.


HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 1–6 (p. 612) Practical Exercise 1 (p. 613) Workbook Questions 1–25 Read “The Stuart Kings of England” through “Rise of

Parliamentary Democracy in England” (pp. 588–593)


CLOSURE Write one-sentence definitions of Gallicanism,

Jansenism, and Quietism.


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Use the completed Graphic Organizer on page 586 to

write a paragraph explaining why the Jansenist theory of grace is erroneous.


ANTICIPATORY SET Study the map of Ireland on page 590 and write a

paragraph summarizing the differences they observe regarding land ownership in 1641 and 1703.

2. The Stuart Kings of England (pp. 588–593)

BASIC QUESTIONS Who were the Stuart kings of England, and how did they fare? How did the Stuart kings and the Calvinist dictator Cromwell

treat Catholics in England and Ireland? KEY IDEAS James I persecuted Catholics and discriminated against

Calvinists. Charles I expanded his power but was at odds with the Calvinist-dominated Parliament; he was deposed at the end of the Civil War (1642–1651) and beheaded by Cromwell. Charles II tolerated Catholics in England, but James II was forced to abdicate during the Glorious Revolution because he produced a Catholic heir. Subsequent legal measures ensured that there would never be another Catholic king in England.

Oliver Cromwell was a Calvinist military dictator who tried to eradicate Catholicism from Ireland. The Irish Plantation system and other penal laws oppressed Catholics severely.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What was the Gunpowder Plot? This plot by a Catholic failed to blow up the king and

Parliament. What two big internal threats did James I face? He feared both the Catholic minority, which he

persecuted, and the growing Calvinist power that dominated Parliament.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What was Charles I’s aim? He wanted absolute rule, so he tried to increase

revenue and centralize the bureaucracy. What were Charles I’s conflicts with Parliament? Because he would not guarantee tolerance for

Calvinists, the Calvinist-dominated Parliament refused to grant him revenues to carry out his policies.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What was the result of the English Civil War? Calvinists rose to power under Oliver Cromwell, a

dictator who beheaded King Charles I. How was Cromwell’s rule? He formed a military dictatorship based on Puritan

principles and persecuted Catholics.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What were the Irish Plantations? These large areas in northeastern Ireland were cleared of

Catholics—without their permission and without compensation—and resettled by Scottish Protestants.

What was the aim of the plantations? The goal was to eradicate Catholics from Ireland. What was the Catholic reaction to the plantation

system? A rebellion broke out wherein about 3000 Protestants died.


GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table

about Oliver Cromwell’s plans for the Irish people.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What was the outcome of the plantation movements? There were three major plantation movements whereby 81%

of all fertile land in Ireland was transferred to Protestant immigrants. This impoverished the Catholic population.

How did Ulster go from the most Gaelic to the most

British region of Ireland? The Ulster counties of the north and west of Ireland had

comprised the most fiercely Gaelic region. To break this, the first and most successful plantation movement began there in 1609.


GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to compile a list of English actions

against the Irish.


FOCUS QUESTION What was the cause of the Protestant–Catholic troubles that

plagued Northern Ireland during the second half of the twentieth century?

After Ireland had gained independence from England in 1921, the English retained control of the counties of Ulster. Both Protestants and Catholics considered themselves to the rightful heirs to those lands. Extension: This problem was exacerbated by the minority Protestant population holding power over the poorer, majority Catholic population; a tiny minority of Catholics in the north formed a radical terrorist organization.

What was King Charles II’s policy toward Catholics, and why did it

end? He was sympathetic to Catholics in England and discreetly tolerated

them. This ended when public pressure from the fabricated Popish Plot forced him to resume persecution.


FOCUS QUESTIONS What was the justification for the Glorious Revolution that

deposed King James II? Parliament claimed the right to revolution as described in John Locke’s

Two Treatises on Government, which argued that, when a king violates the social contract with his subjects, the people have the right to replace that ruler with one of their own choosing. They claimed that King James II had violated the social contract by allowing his son to be baptized Catholic.

How did Parliament assure that there would never be another

Catholic king in England? The Act of Settlement barred Catholics from political office and

prohibited any from sitting on the throne. Extension: Later Test Acts prohibited Catholics from attending university and from practicing any profession within the British Isles.


HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 7–12 (p. 612) Practical Exercise 2 (p. 613) Workbook Questions 26–46 Read “The Scientific Revolution and the Age of

Enlightenment” through “The New Order in Science and Politics” (pp. 593-598)


CLOSURE Free write for five minutes describing how the Stuart

kings and the Calvinist dictator Oliver Cromwell treated Catholics in England and Ireland.


ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Complete the following table about the fate of the

Stuart kings of England.



ANTICIPATORY SET Mini-lecture: Science and Christianity.

3. The Scientific Revolution and the Age of

Enlightenment (pp. 593–598)

BASIC QUESTIONS What contributions did Descartes, Bacon, Copernicus,

Brahe, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton make? What are Locke’s concepts of the social contract and the

rights of man? KEY IDEAS Descartes founded subjective philosophy. Bacon championed

inductive reasoning. Copernicus introduced a heliocentric model of the universe, which was supported by the observations of Brahe and the formulations of Kepler. Galileo developed the scientific method. Newton founded modern physics.

Locke was optimistic about human capacity within politics in his theories of the social contract and natural rights.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Descartes seek to accomplish by philosophy? He sought to achieve the same level of certainty he had

seen in mathematical demonstration. How did Descartes’s dictum, “Cogito ergo sum,” affect

philosophy? This turned philosophy upside down, moving it from the

realm of reality to subjective thought processes. Extension: St. Thomas Aquinas would probably have said not, “I think therefore I am,” but rather, “I am [a human being] therefore I think.”



FOCUS QUESTIONS How did Descartes view metaphysics? Descartes believed that human beings are incapable to

know metaphysical truth, that is, truth transcending empirical data. Extension: Empirical data is that which can be observed and measured using the five senses.

According to Francis Bacon, what can science do for

human beings? Bacon said that scientific inquiry could help human

beings control nature and contribute to the wealth and comfort of civilization.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What is Novum Organum? This book by Bacon describes scientific inquiry.

Extension: Bacon predicted that human beings would fly and travel by submarine one day.

What is inductive knowledge? This way of knowing collects empirical data from which

general principles are derived. Aristotle used deductive knowledge, which begins with general principles known to be true and draws new conclusions from them.



GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to list Galileo’s other scientific

contributions.



FOCUS QUESTION What did Nicholas Copernicus theorize? Based on closer observation of the movement of the sun,

planets, and stars, Copernicus posited that the Ptolemaic model of the universe, in which the earth is in the center, did not explain the motion of the stars as well as a heliocentric model, wherein the earth and other bodies revolve around the sun. Extension: Copernicus’s model did explain the movements of the heavenly bodies more easily than the Ptolemaic model, but Copernicus’s model was not conclusive because he assumed that the planets have circular orbits when, in fact, they are elliptical.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Tycho Brahe contribute to astronomy? Though he disagreed with Copernicus’s heliocentric model of

the solar system, he amassed more detailed and accurate measurements of the movement of celestial bodies than anyone before him.

What did Kepler contribute to the Copernican model? He devised a mathematical model to describe the planets’

elliptical orbits around the sun. Brahe’s systematic, empirical observations and Kepler’s mathematical interpretation of the data helped give birth to the modern scientific method.



GRAPHIC ORGANIZER Work with a partner to complete the following table on

early contributors to empirical science.





FOCUS QUESTIONS What method did Galileo Galilei pioneer? Galileo applied the principle of experimentation to reach

verifiable conclusions. He combined observation, experimentation, and application in a systematic way.

Why did some churchmen object to Galileo’s support of

the Copernican model? The Copernican theory remained unproven, and some

theologians thought that a heliocentric system contradicted some passages of Sacred Scripture. Many Catholic theologians and scientists—including Popes Paul V and Gregory XV—supported Galileo.



FOCUS QUESTION Why was Galileo Galilei placed under house arrest

in a mansion at the end of his life? After having agreed to abandon his assertions about the

Copernican system, he published his greatest work, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World, which defends the Copernican theory and ridicules the geocentric position. Churchmen demanded that he present his findings as a hypothesis rather than fact. When he refused, he was arrested and confined to his villas in Siena and Florence, where he continued to pursue his work.



FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Isaac Newton achieve? He showed that Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Galileo’s laws

of terrestrial motion were manifestations of the same law. He founded modern physics.

What did some conclude from Newton’s explanation of the

laws of nature? Some concluded that human reason could unlock the secrets of the

universe. How did the rise of natural science affect the political sphere? Philosophers like Locke advocated optimistically the natural,

inalienable rights of all people, which led to his theory of the social contract.



HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 13–17 (p. 612) Practical Exercise 3 (p. 613) Workbook Questions 47–66 Read “The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and Its

Effects” through “Conclusion” (pp. 599-608)



CLOSURE Free write for five minutes describing the relationship

between Christianity and the rise of modern science.



ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Discuss the content of Scholasticism in the Medieval

era, humanism in the Renaissance, and the rise of modern science in the Enlightenment.



ANTICIPATORY SET Read the following excerpt on prayer from Voltaire’s

Philosophical Dictionary, and then discuss why Voltaire’s logic is sound but his conclusion is wrong.

“The Eternal has his intentions from all eternity. If prayer accords with his immutable wishes, it is quite useless to ask of him what he has resolved to do. If one prays him to do the contrary of what he has resolved, it is praying him to be weak, frivolous, inconstant; it is believing that he is thus, it is to mock him. Either you ask him a just thing; in this case he must do it, and the thing will be done without your praying him for it; entreating him is even to distrust him: or the thing is unjust, and then you outrage him. You are worthy or unworthy of the grace you implore: if worthy, he knows it better than you; if unworthy, you commit a crime the more in asking for what you do not deserve.”

4. The Protagonists of the Enlightenment and Its Effects (pp.

599–608)

BASIC QUESTION What did the major figures of the Enlightenment believe, how

were their ideas transmitted, and what were their effects? KEY IDEA The major figures of the Enlightenment, philosophes, were

Deists who rejected Divine Revelation and the supernatural. They worked to destroy the Church and advance their desired reforms. Their ideas were spread through the Encyclopedia, the most prominent writer of which was Voltaire, who advocated enlightened despotism. Rousseau blamed society for human ills. He espoused the principles of liberty and equality, with political authority coming from those ruled. Enlightened despots ruled Europe with some success in Catholic Austria through Febronianism. The philosophes destroyed their formidable enemy, the Jesuits.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTION Why did the philosophes reject Divine Revelation

and supernatural religion? These intellectual proponents of the Enlightenment

believed that all knowledge ought to be based on rational demonstration, which rejects the supernatural out of hand.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What is Deism? Deism is a rationalist philosophy that teaches that God created

the universe with its laws and guiding principles, set it in motion, and then withdrew from it. He is more like a watchmaker who builds a watch, winds it up, and then leaves it to run on its own than an immanent God who is involved in the affairs of the world.

What is the connection between Deism and Freemasonry? Many Deists organized a fraternal society called the

Freemasons.


599–608)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to summarize the Deistic religion.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What is the attitude of Freemasons toward the Catholic

Church? Freemasons actively work to destroy the Catholic Church

and her influence. What was the Encyclopedia? This seventeen-volume catalogue of knowledge in all

subjects was conceived and edited by Denis Diderot. However, rather than presenting knowledge objectively, the authors presented the information from a rationalist, materialist, and anti-supernatural viewpoint.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How was the Encyclopedia effective to propagate

Enlightenment ideas? With the increase in literacy among Europeans, the

Encyclopedia was read widely throughout Europe, with about 25,000 sets sold before the French Revolution.

What institution did Voltaire attack habitually? The major institution Voltaire attacked was the Catholic

Church.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Voltaire believe concerning God and morals? Voltaire asserted that belief in God and the discernment

between good and evil arises from reason alone, so he argued for natural religion and natural morality. He portrayed Christianity as a foolish and absurd human invention developed to quiet the masses.

What is enlightened despotism? If a monarch were enlightened by reasonable ideas, his

political power could carry out effectively great reforms within society.


599–608)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to organize Voltaire’s actions

toward Catholicism. You should present at least three negative and at least three positive actions.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What is the social contract? People allow themselves to be governed for their protection. All

political authority thus comes from the ruled rather than God. Free individuals, who live together within a society, create—whether explicitly or implicitly—a social contract through which they choose a ruler or rulers.

How were Rousseau and Voltaire opposites? First, human reason and rationalist philosophy were at the center of

Voltaire’s writings, whereas Rousseau questioned the trustworthiness of human reason alone and relied more on personal conscience and feelings. Second, Voltaire justified enlightened despotism to bring about reform whereas Rousseau believed that the state and its ruler or rulers should be subject to the General Will of those ruled.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS To what did Rousseau’s ambiguous concept of the

General Will lead?This led to revolutionary movements within France and

England’s colonies in North America. The General Will as desire to be ruled by a dictator led to communist revolutions and the emergence of fascism in the twentieth century.

How was Rousseau’s life before he reached middle age? He complained that he was neglected and misunderstood as a

child. He had no social status or wealth. He fathered five children by a mistress, all placed in an orphanage.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS According to Rousseau, what is the source of evil in

life? Society is the source of all evil. Human beings are

naturally good, but society forces them to be violent and false. He thought that primitive man had been happy and innocent.

What did the principle of liberty mean to Rousseau? Rousseau argued individuals should not be subject to any

other person or authority. Subjection to external authority is contrary to nature.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Protestant skeptics hope to accomplish in

Prussia? They wanted to bring religious belief into harmony with the

scientific attitudes of the age, namely, a religion more associated with duty than dogma.

Why did Frederick the Great think that he was best to

lead Prussia? A polyglot, poet, and essayist, Frederick saw himself as the

intellectual head of the state and thus the most enlightened man, best equipped to lead according to reason.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTION How is the divine right of kings related to

enlightened despotism? These ideas rationalize absolute rule. The divine right of

kings asserts that a monarch receives authority from God directly and answers to him alone. Enlightened despotism uses military and political power to accomplish the ruler’s ends.


599–608)

GUIDED EXERCISE Work with a partner to list at least three ways that

Frederick the Great was a despot and at least three ways that he was enlightened.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS Who was Febronius, and what did he argue? Febronius was the pen name of an auxiliary bishop in

Germany, Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim, who denied the authority of the Pope and argued in favor of Conciliarism. He urged German bishops to assert independence from the Pope and secular rulers to seize authority over churches and Church holdings.

How did the Pope and the vast majority of German

bishops respond to Febronianism? Pope Clement XIII condemned the writings of Febronius, and

almost every German bishop pledged his fidelity and allegiance to the Pope above the temporal ruler.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How was the rule of Empress Maria-Theresa? This devout Catholic monarch was a just, efficient, and

patient reformer of Austria. What was the character of Maria-Theresa’s son

Joseph II, and what ideas did he embrace? Joseph II was impulsive and impatient. He considered

himself a philosophe and adopted the ideas of Febronius.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What held leaders in Catholic regions in check

compared to leaders in Protestant regions? Leaders in Catholic regions were not able to assert

complete domination as easily because the churchmen wielded significant moral authority.

How did Gallicanism allow Catholic rulers to

compete with their Protestant neighbors? Catholic rulers could ignore the Pope and bishops to

control the Church within their realms.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Joseph II attempt in Austria? He launched a massive reform program for Austria, which turned out to be

disastrous. How did Joseph II apply Febronian ideas to Austria? He insisted on approving all papal documents before publication. He

forbade bishops to communicate directly with Rome, forcing them to take an oath of allegiance to himself. He controlled the seminaries and had them use a watered-down catechism. Seminary professors could preach on moral subjects but not doctrinal matters. He suppressed “useless” religious communities and cut off the remaining ones from their superiors.

What was Joseph II’s legacy? He saw all his reforms fail.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS Why were the Jesuits so hated by the philosophes? Educated, connected, established, intellectually powerful,

and obedient to the Pope, the Jesuits were the only Catholic group to counteract the rationalist, anti-Catholic ideology of the Enlightenment effectively.

What did Jesuits criticize about the Portuguese

government? They criticized the government’s foreign policy,

especially its having taken a leading role in the slave trade.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS What did Portugal want from the Jesuits in South

America? Portugal wanted to extend its territory and wealth by

annexing South American lands that were protected by Jesuit missions.

Who worked to suppress the Jesuits in France? This was done by Gallicanists, Jansenists, philosophes,

and the mistress of Louis XV.


599–608)

FOCUS QUESTIONS How were the Jesuits suppressed in Spain, and what

were the effects? Relying on false evidence, the king banished all Jesuits and

confiscated their properties in Spain and South America. More than 500,000 people in the missions lost their priests, and some 6000 Jesuits were expelled from Spain.

Why did Pope Clement XIV suppress the Jesuits, and

what was the effect? He had hoped to restore peace within the Church. Rather

than peace, the effect was an increase of demands on the Pope. Pope Pius VII restored the Jesuits after forty years.


599–608)

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT Study Questions 18–28 (p. 612) Practical Exercise 4 (p. 613) Workbook Questions 67–90 Workbook Vocabulary


599–608)

CLOSURE Write a paragraph exploring one of the following:

The most important idea of the Enlightenment The most important figure of the Enlightenment The most important means by which the ideas of the

Enlightenment were disseminated The most important effect of the Enlightenment


599–608)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT Discuss Practical Exercise 4 (p. 613) on how the

Enlightenment was related to the Reformation and the Wars of Religion.


599–608)

THE END

Documents

Chapter 16: The Church and the Age of Enlightenment THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH