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CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2CHAPTER 2
The Journey Begins The Journey Begins ––
ChildhoodChildhood
Chapter OverviewChapter Overview
The Psychodynamic PerspectiveDevelopment of PersonalityThe Structure of PersonalityPersonality DynamicsModificationsApplying It to Yourself
The Biological PerspectiveNature v. NurtureA Newer ApproachApplying It to Yourself
Perspectives on Child Development
The Journey The Journey Begins--Begins--
ChildhoodChildhood
Chapter Overview Chapter Overview cont’d
Developmental ChallengesTemperamentSelf-Recognition and Self-ConceptAttachmentApplying It to Yourself
The Humanistic PerspectiveThe Phenomenal SelfSelf-ActualizationApplying It to Yourself
The Journey The Journey Begins --Begins --
Childhood Childhood cont’d
The Social-Cognitive PerspectiveSocial Learning TheoriesRecent AdditionsApplying It to Yourself
Chapter SummaryChapter Summary
• Perspectives on Child Development
• The Biological Perspective on Child Development– Nature Versus Nurture: An Old
Debate– A Newer Approach– Applying It to Yourself
Chapter SummaryChapter Summary cont’d
• The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Development– Development of Personality– The Structure of Personality– Personality Dynamics– Modifications– Applying It to Yourself
Chapter SummaryChapter Summary cont’d
• The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child Development– Social Learning Theories– Recent Additions: Cognitions & Behavior – Evaluation– Applying It to Yourself
Chapter SummaryChapter Summary cont’d
• The Humanistic Perspective on Child Development– The Phenomenal Self– Self-Actualization– Applying It to Yourself
Chapter SummaryChapter Summary cont’d
• Developmental Challenges in Childhood– Temperament– Self-Recognition and Self-Concept– Attachment– Applying It to Yourself
Perspectives on Child Perspectives on Child DevelopmentDevelopment
• Development-the relatively enduring changes in people’s capacities and behavior as they grow older because of biological growth processes and people’s interaction with their environment, including their social environment.
• … a healthy childhood creates resiliency and therefore a more fulfilling adulthood.
• Different viewpoints (perspectives) on development offer “hows” and “whys”…
The Biological The Biological PerspectivePerspective
on Child Developmenton Child DevelopmentNature Versus Nurture: An Old Debate
• Genes-the biochemical units by which characteristics are inherited.
• Heredity-transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
• Some argue that almost all of our personal characteristics are inherited or genetic.
• Others argue that the environment and learning are more influential.
• This controversy is called the nature-nurture debate.
Nature Versus Nurture:Nature Versus Nurture:An Old DebateAn Old Debate cont’d
• …evolution and adaptation also play a role in determining our characteristics.
• Studies of identical twins (who possess identical genetic profiles) help to tease out whether nature or nurture is more important.
• Important questions and ethical issues regarding the perspective persist.
A Newer ApproachA Newer Approach
• The nature-nurture debate: what is more influential? biology or environment?
• The newer approach- development is the result of a combination of or complex interaction of both!
• An example: identical twinsidentical twins-similar in some traits (the influence of genes) ; dissimilar in others (the influence of being in different environments on different occasions).
Applying It to YourselfApplying It to Yourself
• Do not blame your genes for causing behavior or personality.
• Families also share the same environment!
• …examine your family tree to discover common family traits.
• Will you find causes? Maybe, maybe not; but the exercise can be an interesting journey of self-discovery and self-revelation!
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
Introduction• Psychodynamic theory-a group of related
theories that view personality and behavior in terms of the dynamics (or interactions) of driving forces of development (and of personality) such as desires, anxieties, conflicts, and defenses.
• Founder, Sigmund Freud, felt that the causes of our behavior were inaccessible to us (i.e. hidden in the unconscious).
• Psychoanalytic therapy--GOAL: help people gain insight, mastery into unconscious processes.
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
Development• … children pass through several stages.• Fixation--the person becomes emotionally
fixed at one stage and symbolically continues to act out wishes that were overly inhibited or indulged.
• First stage--the oral stage: the mouth becomes the primary means of gratification for the child.
• Second stage--the anal stage: the child’s major source of physical pleasure becomes the releasing or retaining of feces.
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
Development cont’d• Third stage--the phallic stage: the period
in which the child experiences sensual pleasure through handling his or her genitals.
• …also characterized by conflict or struggle with the parent of the opposite sex, because that parent attracts the attention and affection of the other parent.
• In girls this is called the Electra complex.• In boys it is called the Oedipal complex.
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
Development cont’d• Successful resolution of these conflicts
leads to the:• Fourth stage--the latency stage: the
child’s interests turn away from sensuality and the child’s urges lie dormant.
• Final stage--the genital stage: the person begins the onset of puberty, true sexual maturation, and adult sexual activity.
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
The Structure of PersonalityFreud suggested that the personality is
composed of three different structures which interact:
• ID – that part of the personality that is the unconscious reservoir of psychic energy and the source of later development.
• EGO – the direct outgrowth of the ID and which functions as a manager of personality, thereby enabling the individual to cope with the conflicting demands of the ID, the SUPEREGO, and society.
• SUPEREGO – the part of personality which has been shaped by the moral standards of society as transmitted by the parents.
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
The Structure of Personality cont’d
Each structure operates according to a different principle:
ID – pleasure principle
EGO – reality principle
SUPEREGO – principle of perfection
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
ModificationsFreud’s students and followers:• Anna Freud• Carl Jung• Erik Erikson…decreased emphasis on sexuality.…focused on ego development;
social, not intrapsychic conflict
The Psychodynamic The Psychodynamic Perspective on Child Perspective on Child
DevelopmentDevelopment
• Conflicting feelings are “normal,” according to Freud.
• Conflict may be unconscious; it can cause you to act in opposite ways, e.g. loving and hating the same person.
• Coping strategies derive from your childhood and how your parents raised you.
• It is “normal” to experience multiple problems and anxieties simultaneously.
• Optimal adjustment comes from living in the world as it is rather than wishing the world were some other way.
Applying It to Yourself
The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child
DevelopmentSocial-cognitive perspective--a broad term that
includes behavioral and social learning theories as well as cognitive psychology.
Important concepts behind the perspective:• Learning--a relatively permanent change in behavior.• Learning theory--a systematic statement of learning
principles.– Leading theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B. F.
Skinner. – Major concept: reinforcement--the addition of
something that increases the likelihood of a behavior. EXAMPLE: a parent rewards a child’s bed-making by reading her a favorite story.
• Cognitive psychology--perspective that assumes that learning and behavior involve higher-level cognitive functions or thinking.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child
DevelopmentSocial Learning Theory
…much of what we do and know is acquired through…
• Observational learning--process in which we learn by observing events and other people, or “models,” without any direct reward or reinforcement.– Leading theorist: Albert Bandura– Research focus: the conditions under
which observational learning occurs; the learning of aggression by children from media sources.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child
Development
Recent Additions: Cognition and BehaviorBehavioral and social learning theorists now recognize that
behavior is influenced by:• Cognition--the processing of information; involves
processes such as selective attention, information gathering, memory, and motivation.
…and that behavior, thinking, and environment interact:• Reciprocal determinism--the notion that there is a
mutual interaction among factors that affect our learning, cognition, and behaviors. – EXAMPLE: a child who watches violence and whose
parents explain that violence is not acceptable. The child, then, is less likely to actually commit violence.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child
Development
Recent Additions: Cognition and Behavior
cont’d…also important is:• Self-efficacy--the belief in one’s capacity to
organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child
Development
Self-Efficacy: An Example• A student who studies hard for an
exam so as to improve her changes of receiving a high grade is demonstrating self-efficacy.
• Self-efficacy is an extremely important concept in the field of personal growth and development.
The Social-Cognitive Perspective on Child
Development
Applying It to Yourself• Many behaviors and personality traits
are acquired by interaction with significant others, like parents.
• Past experiences and learning can be undone; we can acquire new behaviors and better traits and achieve personal change and growth.
• “Abnormal” patterns can be replaced by more adaptive and optimal patterns.
• Because of constant interaction with our environments personal change and growth is ongoing.
The Humanistic Perspectiveon Child Development
• Humanistic psychology--a group of related theories and therapies that emphasize the values of human freedom and the uniqueness of individuals.…also known as the “third force” in psychology, with
psychoanalysis and behaviorism being one and two!– Leading humanistic theorists: Carl Rogers, Abraham
Maslow.
New outgrowth of humanistic psychology:• Positive psychology--umbrella term for the
study of positive emotions, positive character traits, and enabling institutions.
The Humanistic Perspectiveon Child Development
The Phenomenal Self• Described by Carl Rogers• …it is the individual’s overall self-concept
available to awareness. • … part our biological tendency to
develop and fulfill ourselves.• Children have a need for unconditional
positive regard or acceptance by others.
• They often experience “conditions of worth” from significant others, leading to self-distortions…
The Humanistic Perspectiveon Child Development
The Phenomenal Self cont’d• Rogers states that children thrive in
supportive and accepting environments.
• …but not all environments are supportive and accepting!
• Person-centered therapy, developed by Rogers, provides a supportive, warm, and accepting environment.
• …more detail on this later!
The Humanistic Perspectiveon Child Development
Self-Actualization• Described by Abraham Maslow • It is the process of fulfilling our inborn
potential.• …an inborn tendency.• When our basic needs (food, water,
etc.) are met, we become more aware of our need for fulfillment.
• …more on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to come.
The Humanistic Perspectiveon Child Development
Apply It to Yourself• Perceive yourself in terms of your positive
strengths and potential rather than in terms of shortcomings.
• Problems and conflicts are not necessary nor inevitable.
• Optimal adjustment can be achieved through personal growth and by taking reasonable risks.
• Self-actualization is an ongoing process and as such is only imperfectly realized for most of us.
• Perfection is not necessary for happiness.
Developmental Developmental Challenges in Challenges in
ChildhoodChildhood
Developmental Developmental Challenges in Challenges in
ChildhoodChildhood
There are several There are several developmental milestones that developmental milestones that
affect personality…affect personality…
Developmental Challenges
in ChildhoodTemperament
• An individual’s characteristic pattern of emotional response and behavioral reactivity to situations and stressors.
• Researchers categorize infant temperament in one of three ways:– Easy--happy and cheerful– Difficult--irritable and unpredictable– Slow-to-warm--restrained until they adjust to new
situations• Temperament seems to be “nature”• Early temperament correlates with later
personality.
Developmental Challenges
in ChildhoodSelf-Recognition and Self-Concept
• Self-concept depends on…• Self-recognition--a child's ability to
differentiate him- or herself from others in the social environment.
• …occurs between 18-24 months as evidenced by the “surprise-mark” test.
• Children start using personal pronouns (i.e., “I,” “me”) around 20-24 months.
• Self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy are based in self-recognition.
Developmental Challenges
in ChildhoodApply It to Yourself
Are you:• Trusting or suspicious?• Easy-going or anxious?• Secure in your relationships or mistrustful?
When you look in the mirror, who do you see?
The answers to these questions are rooted in your childhood!
Conclusion
• There are differing perspectives on child development, each with its own contributions.
• No one perspective is better than another.• In fact, given human uniquenesses, perhaps a
combination of ideas from the various perspectives will one day offer a better conceptualization of human growth and development.
• Child development is the prelude to later development.
