Chapter 3Learning and

Ability

Objective1. Concept of Learning.2. Theories of Learning.3. Biographical Characteristics.4. Different types of abilities.

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LEARNING

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Learning

• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• It is concerned with behaviour

• Is acquired through experience

Learning

• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• It is concerned with behaviour

• Is acquired through experience

THEORIES OF LEARNING

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It was conducted by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the 1927.

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned responseIvan Pavlov

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Thus we can say that a conditioned response involves building up an association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

When the stimuli, one compelling and other neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and so takes on the properties of unconditioned stimulus.

Classical conditioning is passive.

Something happens and we react in a specific way.

It is elicited in response to a specific and identifiable event.

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Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Voluntary (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Voluntary (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

It was propounded by a Harvard psychologist B F Skinner. This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior.

The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.

B.F.Skinner

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Key Concepts

1. Attention processes

2. Retention processes

3. Motor reproduction processes

4. Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts

1. Attention processes

2. Retention processes

3. Motor reproduction processes

4. Reinforcement processes

It acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning

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Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Systematic attempt is made to change individuals’ behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps.

Shaping Behavior

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

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Positive reinforcementProviding a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcementProcess of having a reward taken away as a

consequence of a undesired behavior.Punishment

Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Extinction An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour

– the attempt to weaken behavior by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to ignoring the behavior.

Positive Reinforcemente.g.: you receive bonus

after successfully completing important

task

Negative Reinforcemente.g.: scholarship is withdraw from the

student who has not done well in examination

Punishmente.g.: you are threatened

with demotion or discharge after treating

client badly.

Extinctione.g.: mischievous

student disturbing the class, asking for

attention.

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Desirable Behaviour

Undesirable Behaviour

Event is Added

Event is Removed

1. Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement results strengthen responses and increases the probability of repetition

2. Both Punishment and Extinction weaken the behaviour and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency.

Schedules of Reinforcement

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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E X H I B I T 3.3.1

Fixed-ratio

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

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E X H I B I T 3.3.1

Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

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E X H I B I T 3.3.1

BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

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Problem-solving Model

• Identify critical behaviors

• Develop baseline data

• Identify behavioral consequences

• Developing and implementing an intervention strategy

• Evaluate performance improvement

Problem-solving Model

• Identify critical behaviors

• Develop baseline data

• Identify behavioral consequences

• Developing and implementing an intervention strategy

• Evaluate performance improvement

OB Mod ( Luthans, F. 1975)A well known system of motivation, is an attempt to change behavior by manipulating rewards and punishment.

SPECIFIC ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATIONS

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Using Lotteries to reduce AbsenteeismEx. Continental AirlinesCredits the lottery with significantly reducing the

company’s absent rate (variable-ratio).Well Pay versus Sick Pay

Ex. Midwest organizations in USAReduce absenteeism by rewarding

attendance, not absence.Ex. Forbes Magazine.

CONT…

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Employee DisciplineThe use of punishment can be counter-

productive.Social-learning theory

Improve training effectiveness.Self-management

Reduces the need for external management control.

BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS

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Gender, Age, Marital status and Tenure are the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence, turnover and satisfaction

A. GENDER

There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their job performance, including the areas of:

Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive and more likely than women to have expectations of success.

There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules.

Absence and turnover rates

–Problem-solving–Analytical skills–Competitive drive

–Motivation–Sociability–Learning ability

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B. AGE

1.The relationship between Age And Job Performance is increasing in importance.

2.Employers’ perceptions are mixed.

3.It is tempting to assume that Age is inversely related to Absenteeism.

4.Belief that Productivity Declines with Age and that individual skills decay over time.

5.The relationship between Age and Job Satisfaction is mixed.

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C. Marital Status

Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried co-workers (Garrrison and Muchinsky, 1977)

Besides single or married statuses, there is difference between divorce, domestic partnering, etc.

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D. Tenure

The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to misconceptions and speculations.

Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted:• There is a positive relationship between tenure and

job productivity.• There is a negative relationship between tenure to

absence.• Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining

turnover. • Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively

related to turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover.

• The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related.

ABILITY

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DIMENSIONS OFINTELLECTUAL ABILITY

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• Number aptitude – Ability to do speedy and accurate

arithmetic . Ex. Accountant

• Verbal comprehension – Read write speaking ability.

Ex. Senior Manager

• Perceptual speed – Identify similarities and

differences quickly. Ex. Investigators

• Inductive reasoning – Logical sequence drawing.

Ex. Market Researcher

• Number aptitude – Ability to do speedy and accurate

arithmetic . Ex. Accountant

• Verbal comprehension – Read write speaking ability.

Ex. Senior Manager

• Perceptual speed – Identify similarities and

differences quickly. Ex. Investigators

• Inductive reasoning – Logical sequence drawing.

Ex. Market Researcher

E X H I B I T 3.6.2

Cont…

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• Deductive reasoning – Ability to use logic and assess

the implications of the argument. Ex. Supervisors

• Spatial visualization – Ability to imagine.

Ex. Interior decorator

• Memory – Ability to retain and recall past experience

Ex. Sale person remembering customer’s name

• Deductive reasoning – Ability to use logic and assess

the implications of the argument. Ex. Supervisors

• Spatial visualization – Ability to imagine.

Ex. Interior decorator

• Memory – Ability to retain and recall past experience

Ex. Sale person remembering customer’s name

E X H I B I T 3.6.2

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Multiple Intelligences was developed by Gardener.

Eight different intelligences:1. Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)2. Logical-mathematical intelligence

(“number/reasoning smart”)3. Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)5. Musical intelligence (“music smart”)6. Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)7. Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)8. Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

PHYSICAL ABILITY

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NINE PHYSICAL ABILITIES

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Other Factors

• Body coordination

• Balance

• Stamina

Other Factors

• Body coordination

• Balance

• Stamina

Strength Factors

• Dynamic strength

• Trunk strength

• Static strength

• Explosive strength

Strength Factors

• Dynamic strength

• Trunk strength

• Static strength

• Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

• Extent flexibility

• Dynamic flexibility

Flexibility Factors

• Extent flexibility

• Dynamic flexibility

E X H I B I T 3.6.2

THE ABILITY - JOB FIT

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Ability-JobFitEmployee’sEmployee’s

AbilitiesAbilitiesJob’s AbilityJob’s Ability

RequirementsRequirements

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