Chapter 3 Morphology To get a general idea of some features of word ； To understand word-formation processes; To get a general idea of morphology and

Chapter 3

Morphology

To get a general idea of some features of wordTo get a general idea of some features of word ；；

To understand word-formation processes; To understand word-formation processes;

To get a general idea of morphology and morphemes;To get a general idea of morphology and morphemes;

To understand morphological description. To understand morphological description.

Aims

Think back how the elementary students or ten-year-oThink back how the elementary students or ten-year-o

ld children memorize the following English words? Wld children memorize the following English words? W

hat about you, a university English major?hat about you, a university English major?

sharpeners, legitimate, respectively, transc

ription, other-worldly, unsuccessful, antidi

sestablishmentariansim

MorphologyMorphology, , as a branch of linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, formis the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.s and classes of words.

Basic Theories of Morphology

What is Word?What is Word?

Lexicon-----Vocanbulary----WordLexicon-----Vocanbulary----Word

LexiconLexicon in linguistics refers to in linguistics refers to vocabularyvocabulary c contrasted with grammar.ontrasted with grammar.

VocabularyVocabulary is the total is the total number of wordsnumber of words t that make up a language.hat make up a language.

Three senses of “word”Three senses of “word”

A physically definable unit A physically definable unit :: a cluster of soun a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or d segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, e.g.blanks, e.g.

– Phonological: [it iz ‵Phonological: [it iz ‵]]

– Orthographic: Orthographic: It is wonderfulIt is wonderful..

– Three words are recognized.Three words are recognized.

However, in casual speech or writing, it ofHowever, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes:ten becomes:

– Phonological: [its ‵Phonological: [its ‵]]

– Orthographic: Orthographic: It’s wonderfulIt’s wonderful..

– Are they two words or three?Are they two words or three?



The common factor The common factor underlying a set of forms.underlying a set of forms.

walk, walks, walking, walkedwalk, walks, walking, walked

A grammatical unitA grammatical unit: a comparably abstract : a comparably abstract unit to be set up to show how words work in unit to be set up to show how words work in the grammar of a languagethe grammar of a language

sentencesentence

clauseclause

phrasephrase

wordword

morphememorpheme

Problem: Problem: blackboardblackboard


a. Word is the smallest meaningful unit in the langua. Word is the smallest meaningful unit in the language which can be used independently. (age which can be used independently. ( 戚雨村，戚雨村，1999)1999)

b. Word is the unit that unifies the sound, sense anb. Word is the unit that unifies the sound, sense and grammar. It is the basic structural unit of a sentd grammar. It is the basic structural unit of a sentence. (ence. ( 陆国强，陆国强， 1983)1983)

c. Word is a unit of expression that has universal intc. Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it uitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. (is expressed in spoken or written form. ( 胡壮麟胡壮麟 ))



Every word has a fixed sound form and a Every word has a fixed sound form and a

certain meaning. In other words, a word certain meaning. In other words, a word

has two aspects: the external aspect has two aspects: the external aspect

(sound), the internal aspect (meaning).(sound), the internal aspect (meaning).

A word is a unity of sound and meaning.A word is a unity of sound and meaning.

A word is a fundamental structure unit of A word is a fundamental structure unit of

a sentence.a sentence.

The relation between the meaning of a The relation between the meaning of a

word and its sound is arbitrary or word and its sound is arbitrary or

conventional.conventional.

Identification of WordsIdentification of Words

StabilityStability Words are the most stable of all linguistics units, Words are the most stable of all linguistics units,

that is the constituent parts of a complex word hthat is the constituent parts of a complex word have potential for rearrangement.ave potential for rearrangement.

Relative uninterruptibilityRelative uninterruptibility By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not

to be inserted a word even when there are several pto be inserted a word even when there are several parts.arts.

Identification of WordsIdentification of Words

A minimum free formA minimum free form

This was first suggested by Leonard This was first suggested by Leonard

Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence

as the maximum free form and word the as the maximum free form and word the

minimum free form. Word is the smallest minimum free form. Word is the smallest

unit that can constitute, by itself, a unit that can constitute, by itself, a

complete utterance. complete utterance. e.g.e.g.—Is Jane coming tonight?—Possibly.— Hi.— Wonderful.

In the grammar course, words can be In the grammar course, words can be

classified into classified into AA and and BB..

What’s A?

What’s B?

Classification of WordsClassification of Words

Variable and invariable wordsVariable and invariable words

Words can be classified according to their variability. Variable words refer to those having different inflections, whereas invariable words refer to those having no inflective forms, e.g.

care look before

careful looks rarely

careless looking always

carefulness looked for

carelessness since


Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words and lexical words

In terms of meaning expressed by words, they can In terms of meaning expressed by words, they can

be classified into grammatical words and lexical be classified into grammatical words and lexical

words.words.

Grammatical wordsGrammatical words are those express are those express

grammatical meaning, such as conjunctions, grammatical meaning, such as conjunctions,

prepositions, articles and pronouns. These words prepositions, articles and pronouns. These words

serve to link different parts together, so they are serve to link different parts together, so they are

also known as also known as functional wordsfunctional words..


Lexical wordsLexical words are those have lexical are those have lexical

meanings, those refer to substance, meanings, those refer to substance,

action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs,

adjectives and adverbs. There words carry adjectives and adverbs. There words carry

the main content of a language, so they the main content of a language, so they

are also known as are also known as content wordscontent words. .

Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class words and open-class words

A closed-class word is one whose A closed-class word is one whose

membership is fixed or limited. membership is fixed or limited.

New members are not regularly added. New members are not regularly added.

Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and

pronouns etc., are all closed items.pronouns etc., are all closed items.


An open-class word is one whose An open-class word is one whose

membership is in principle infinite or membership is in principle infinite or

unlimited. unlimited.

With the emergence of new ideas, With the emergence of new ideas,

inventions, new expressions are inventions, new expressions are

continually and constantly being added to continually and constantly being added to

the lexicon. Nouns, verb, adjectives, the lexicon. Nouns, verb, adjectives,

adverbs are all open-class items.adverbs are all open-class items.



Word Class (Word Class (PARTS OF SPEECH in traditionPARTS OF SPEECH in traditional grammaral grammar))PARTICLES:PARTICLES:

the infinitive marker ”to”, the infinitive marker ”to”, the negative marker “not”,the negative marker “not”,the subordinate unites in phrasal verb, such as the subordinate unites in phrasal verb, such as

“get by(to continue“get by(to continue)) ”do ”do upup(to fasten) ”...(to fasten) ”...

AUXILIARIESAUXILIARIESAUXILIARIES used to be regarded as verbs AUXILIARIES used to be regarded as verbs because of their unique properties, nowadbecause of their unique properties, nowadays, linguists tend to define them as separays, linguists tend to define them as separate word class.ate word class.Negation: I can’t come.

Inversion: Is he coming?

Emphasis: He ‘has come


PRO-FORMPRO-FORM

In order to refer collectively to the items In order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, linguists define items or constructions, linguists define them as a separate word class.them as a separate word class.

Your pen is red. Your pen is red. SoSo is hers.(pro-adjective) is hers.(pro-adjective)

He knows English better than he He knows English better than he diddid.(pro-.(pro-verb)verb)

She hopes her mother will win and I hope She hopes her mother will win and I hope soso.(pro-adverb).(pro-adverb)

Tom is hidingTom is hiding there there, behind the door.(pro-, behind the door.(pro-locative)locative)


iv. Determinersiv. Determiners

**their all trouble

*five the all boys

*all this boy

*five all girls

The following phrases are incorrect. The following phrases are incorrect. Please correct them in pairs.Please correct them in pairs.

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit ofMorpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of

language for grammatical analysis. language for grammatical analysis. A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of A morpheme is the basic unit in the study of

morphology. morphology. Every morpheme has meaning, either lexical Every morpheme has meaning, either lexical

or grammatical. or grammatical. A single word may consist of one or more A single word may consist of one or more

morphemes.morphemes.

Morpheme

A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.

E.g. Tourists: -tour (one minimal unit)

-ist (meaning “person who does something”)

-s (a third unit of grammatical function indicating plurality)

Morpheme

Example:Example: boyishboyish boy: a young, male human beingboy: a young, male human being -ish: having the quality of-ish: having the quality of boyish: having the quality of a young, mboyish: having the quality of a young, m

alealehuman beinghuman being a word over 5 morphemesa word over 5 morphemes Antdisestablishmentarianism Antdisestablishmentarianism

Anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism Anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism (( 国家对教会不予承认论国家对教会不予承认论 , , 国教废除论国教废除论 ))

Morphemes that can stand alone as words are called Free Morphemes.

Morphemes that must be attached to another one are called Bound Morphemes.

Now, in the word “boys”

1) which morpheme is free?

2) which one is bound?

Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, e.g. friend as in unfriendliness.

Roots may be

– free: those that can stand by themselves, e.g. black+board; nation+-al; or

– bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, e.g. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.

Base:Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added, a morpheme to which an affix is added, e.g.e.g.

– friend root = base

– friendly root/base + suffix > base

– unfriendly prefix + base > base

– unfriendliness prefix + base + suffix > base

Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, e.g. friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.

Inflection: grammatical endings, e.g. plural, tense, comparative, etc.

Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. friend+-ly > friendly.

Affix: the type of formative that can be used the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Noronly when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into mally divided into

– prefix (dis-, un-)

– suffix (-en, -ify).

– Infix (feet)

Bound morphemes can be classified into two categories:

Derivational morphemes

recite---recitation---recital

Inflectional morphemes

boy’s, toys, walked

Eight inflectional morphemes

–‘s (possessive)

–s (plural)

–s (3rd person present singular)

–ing (present participle)

–ed (past tense)

–ed (past participle)

–en (past participle)

–est and –er (superlative and comparative degree)

Lexical morphemes are called an open class of words because we can create new lexical morphemes .

Functional morphemes are called a closed class of words.

The chart of the different categories of morphemes

Lexical morphemes (work, house, kind)

Free morphemes

Functional morphemes (and, if, or, but)

Derivational morphemes (-er, -ness, -ly)

Bound morphemes

Inflectional morphemes (-ed, -er, -est)

Morphological rules of word Morphological rules of word formationformationThe ways words are formed are called morphological The ways words are formed are called morphological

rules.rules. Ex: un + inhabit + able (un + adj = not – adjectivEx: un + inhabit + able (un + adj = not – adjectiv

e)e) un + decided (un + adj form derived from a vun + decided (un + adj form derived from a v

erb)erb)Some morphological rules can be productive but somSome morphological rules can be productive but som

e are less.e are less.

Compounds: stringing words togetherCompounds: stringing words together

Same category: Same category: landlady, blue-black, icy-coldlandlady, blue-black, icy-cold Category Category changed keeping the grammatical cat keeping the grammatical cat

egory of the final word: egory of the final word: head-strong, pickpockethead-strong, pickpocket Compounds have different stress patterns from Compounds have different stress patterns from

the noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `the noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `housegreenhouse; red `coat, green `house

The meaning of a compound is not always the suThe meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcm of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat (oat ( 在美国独立战争中服役的英国士兵在美国独立战争中服役的英国士兵 ), bigwig ), bigwig (( 有重大影响的人有重大影响的人 ), highbrow, jack-in-a-box (a tr), highbrow, jack-in-a-box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor)opical tree), turncoat (a tractor)

Compounding is then a very common and frequeCompounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the Ennt process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.glish language.

Lexical ChangeLexical Change

Lexical change properLexical change proper （特有词汇变（特有词汇变化）化） Phonological changePhonological change Morpho-syntactical change Morpho-syntactical change Semantic change Semantic change

Give examples of English words are Give examples of English words are borrowed from other languages?borrowed from other languages?

InventionInvention With the development of economy and sciencWith the development of economy and scienc

e and technology, new words spring up like mushe and technology, new words spring up like mushrooms, e.g. rooms, e.g. clone, e-mail, plasma television, VCD, clone, e-mail, plasma television, VCD, DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital DVD, DJ, skyscraper, dry-wash, shampoo, digital watch, digital television, broad band, modem, bawatch, digital television, broad band, modem, basic language, multimedia resource centers, compsic language, multimedia resource centers, computer support services, disk, UFO etc. uter support services, disk, UFO etc.


Invention/CoinageInvention/Coinage

– Mostly brand names: Mostly brand names:

– Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraKodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, Lycra


BlendingBlending （拼缀法）（拼缀法） Blending is a relatively complex form ofBlending is a relatively complex form of

compounding, in which two words are blended compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and tby joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.he initial parts of the two words.


BlendingBlending– transfer+resistor>transistortransfer+resistor>transistor– smoke+fog>smogsmoke+fog>smog– motorist+hotel>motelmotorist+hotel>motel– breakfast+lunch>brunchbreakfast+lunch>brunch– modulator+demodulator>modemmodulator+demodulator>modem– dance+exercise>dancercisedance+exercise>dancercise– advertisement+editorial>advertorialadvertisement+editorial>advertorial– education+entertainment>edutainmenteducation+entertainment>edutainment– information+commercial>infomercialinformation+commercial>infomercial


AbbreviationAbbreviation: also called : also called clippingclipping, a new wor, a new wordd

is created by is created by cutting the final part. cutting the final part.

advertisement adadvertisement ad

bicycle bikebicycle bike

brassiere brabrassiere bra

delicatessen delidelicatessen deli

professor profprofessor prof

television tellytelevision telly

cutting the initial partcutting the initial part areoplane planeareoplane plane helicopter copterhelicopter copter caravan vancaravan van omnibus busomnibus bus telephone phonetelephone phone

cutting both the initial and final partscutting both the initial and final parts influenza fluinfluenza flu refrigerator fridgerefrigerator fridge detective tecdetective tec

AcronymAcronym （缩略语）（缩略语） Acronym is made up from the first letters of theAcronym is made up from the first letters of thename of an organization, which has a heavily modifiename of an organization, which has a heavily modifie

ddheadword. e.g.headword. e.g. BBC: British Broadcasting CorporationBBC: British Broadcasting Corporation VOA: Voice of AmericaVOA: Voice of America GMT: Greenwich Mean timeGMT: Greenwich Mean time IOC: International Olympic CommitteeIOC: International Olympic Committee ISBN: International Standard Book NumberISBN: International Standard Book Number UN: the United NationsUN: the United Nations OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting CountriesOPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries


Back-formationBack-formation:: an abnormal type of word-formation an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g.affix from a longer form already in the language, e.g.

1) from nouns1) from nouns swindler > swindle burglar> bugleswindler > swindle burglar> bugle beggar> beg editor> editbeggar> beg editor> edit author> auth emotion> emoteauthor> auth emotion> emote donation> donate aggression> aggressdonation> donate aggression> aggress


2) from adjectives, e.g.2) from adjectives, e.g.peevish> peevepeevish> peeve （气恼）（气恼） gloomy> gloomgloomy> gloomcosy> cose/ coze lazy> lazecosy> cose/ coze lazy> lazegreedy> greed gruesome> gruegreedy> greed gruesome> grue （因害怕而发（因害怕而发

抖）抖）3) from words ending in –ling, e.g.3) from words ending in –ling, e.g.sidling> sidlesidling> sidle （侧身而行）（侧身而行）darkling> darkledarkling> darkle （变阴暗）（变阴暗）groveling> grovelgroveling> grovel （匍匐）（匍匐）


BorrowingBorrowing

Greek:Greek: flokati, apocynthion, electricity, atom flokati, apocynthion, electricity, atom Latin:Latin: cancer, tumor, injunction, alibi, i.e., e.g., etc cancer, tumor, injunction, alibi, i.e., e.g., etc French:French: government, country, mortgage, entail government, country, mortgage, entail Spanish:Spanish: macho, flotilla, grandee, embargo macho, flotilla, grandee, embargo Italian:Italian: autostrada, cica, fresco, sonsta autostrada, cica, fresco, sonsta German:German: gemutlich, hamburger, dock, thick-milk gemutlich, hamburger, dock, thick-milk Chinese:Chinese: taji, chow mien, wok, kung-fu taji, chow mien, wok, kung-fu Japanese:Japanese: Jodo Jodo


Lexical ChangeLexical ChangeBorrowing Borrowing LoanwordsLoanwords

The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adoption to the phonological system of the new a slight adoption to the phonological system of the new language. (language. (tea from Chinesetea from Chinese ) )LoanblendLoanblend

This is a process in which part of the form is native This is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowedborrowed. (. (coconut coconut from Spanishfrom Spanish, Chinatown , Chinatown from from ChineseChinese))


LoanshiftLoanshift （转移借词）（转移借词） : a process in which the me: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.aning is borrowed, but the form is native.

bridge (Italian: ponte: a card game); artificial satellibridge (Italian: ponte: a card game); artificial satellite (Russian: sputnik)te (Russian: sputnik)Loan translationLoan translation （翻译借词）（翻译借词） : a special type of bo: a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translarrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another lted in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language. This is also called Calque, which may be a anguage. This is also called Calque, which may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence.word, a phrase, or even a short sentence.

free verse (Latin: verse libre); black humour( French:free verse (Latin: verse libre); black humour( French: humour noir); found object (French: objet trouve) humour noir); found object (French: objet trouve)


Analogical creationAnalogical creation: the principle of Analogical creation : the principle of Analogical creation can account for the coexistence of two forms, regular ancan account for the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular in the conjugation of some English verbs.d irregular in the conjugation of some English verbs.

Hardware: software, shareware, vaporware, liveware,Hardware: software, shareware, vaporware, liveware,

dreamware'. dreamware'.

`men's wear, ladies' wear, underwear, sleepwear,`men's wear, ladies' wear, underwear, sleepwear,

eyewear, legwear, sportswear, skiweareyewear, legwear, sportswear, skiwear

妻子？怎么，不是指

男人的配偶吗？

Semantic ChangeSemantic Change

There are 3 kinds of semantic changes.There are 3 kinds of semantic changes.

Broadening Broadening is a process to extend or elevate is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its original specific sense to the meaning from its original specific sense to a relatively general one.a relatively general one.

Word used to be now meansWord used to be now means

holiday holiday holy day a day for holy day a day for restrest

bird bird young bird any kind of young bird any kind of birdbird

task task tax imposed a piece of tax imposed a piece of workwork

offendoffend to strike againstto strike against to create or excite angerto create or excite anger

birdbird young birdyoung bird any kind of birdany kind of bird

quarantinequarantine forty daysforty days a period of time under a period of time under enforced isolationenforced isolation

companioncompanion a person with whom a person with whom you share bread you share bread

a person who accompanies a person who accompanies youyou

pilepile

heap of stoneheap of stone a quantity of objects a quantity of objects stacked and thrown stacked and thrown togethertogether

tasktask tax imposedtax imposed a piece of worka piece of work

(1) Broadening(1) Broadening


NarrowingNarrowing: The original meaning of a word can be : The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to specific sense.”narrowed or restricted to specific sense.”Meat”Meat” in 17th century means “food’, now it refers to in 17th century means “food’, now it refers to “the edible flesh of mammals.”“the edible flesh of mammals.”

Word used to be now meansWord used to be now means

girl girl young person of either sex young young person of either sex young womanwoman

deerdeer beast a particular kind of beast a particular kind of animalanimal

knight knight youth a medieval gentleman-youth a medieval gentleman-soldiersoldier

(2) Narrowing(2) Narrowing

campcamp open field open field a place where a body of men a place where a body of men are temporarily lodged in are temporarily lodged in tentstents

girlgirl young person of young person of either sexeither sex

young womanyoung woman

liquidliquid liquidliquid an alcoholic beverage by an alcoholic beverage by distillationdistillation

oratororator one who speaksone who speaks a person skilled in the art of a person skilled in the art of public addresspublic address

houndhound dogdog a special kind of doga special kind of dog


Meaning shiftMeaning shift

All semantic changes involves meaning shift.Here it All semantic changes involves meaning shift.Here it means the departure from its original domain as a result means the departure from its original domain as a result of its metaphorical usage. of its metaphorical usage.

Class shiftClass shift

By shifting the word class one can change the meaning By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution.This process of word formation is known or attribution.This process of word formation is known as zero-derivation, or conversion.as zero-derivation, or conversion.

engineer N. engineer N. a person trained in a branch of engineering.a person trained in a branch of engineering.

V. to act as an engineerV. to act as an engineer


Folk etymology Folk etymology refers to a change in form of a word or prefers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the hrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of morigin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous. ore familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.

A popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word A popular but mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrase .or phrase .– historyhistory: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meanin: Old French < Latin < Greek historia, meanin

g 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'. g 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or narrative'. – his story > her storyhis story > her story

Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change

Morphological change:Morphological change:– third person singular present tense: third person singular present tense: – -(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >

-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds– the campus of the university > the campus of the university >

the university’s campusthe university’s campus

Syntactic change:– He saw you not. > He didn’t see you.– I know not where to hide my head. > I don’t know

where to hide my head.

Fusion/blending:– equally good + just as good > equally as good– It’s no use getting there before nine + There’s no

use in getting there before nine > There’s no use getting there before nine.

Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change

Phonological changePhonological change

Loss of sound:Loss of sound: – loss of the velar fricative loss of the velar fricative /x//x/ which existed in which existed in

O.E. O.E. – loss of sound in fast speech, loss of sound in fast speech,

e.g. e.g. librlibrarary, laby, labooratoryratory– andand > > ’n’n in connected speech, in connected speech,

e.g. e.g. rock-’n-rollrock-’n-roll

Addition of sound: – L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estud

o– English: rascal > rapscallion

Metathesis: changing the sequence of sound– O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask

Assimilation:– impossible, immovable– irregular, irresponsible– illogical, illegal

Phonological changePhonological change

Orthographic changeOrthographic change

Change of spelling:Change of spelling:– Iesus > JesusIesus > Jesus– sate > satsate > sat– Sunne > SunSunne > Sun

Documents

Chapter 3 Morphology To get a general idea of some features of word ； To understand word-formation processes; To get a general idea of morphology and