Chapter 34

An Age of Anxiety

Still from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) 1

Postwar Pessimism The “Lost Generation”

Term coined by Gertrude Stein, the writer/playwright/art patron and godmother of Americans in-exile in Paris after the war.

Shortage of marriageable men in Britain, France, and Germany; surreal spectacle many men on the street lacking limbs in Paris, London, and Berlin

Disillusionment after WWI and pessimism over idea of human progress Oswald Spengler, Decline of the West: multi-volume work

by a retired school teacher theorizing that civilizations are like organisms, and that Western civilization was dying.

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Postwar Pessimism Many attacks on progress: Scientists and technological

innovations were deemed responsible for the making of poisonous gas and explosives that killed millions and destroyed agriculture and cities.

Science and technology blamed for the industrialized mass killing and maiming of World War I.

Most western democracies granted suffrage to all men and women following the war, but faith in democracy’s ability to deal with complex problems of the modern world was waning.

Many intellectuals became disillusioned with democracy because they saw it as lacking positive values. Some worried about the democracy’s “rule of inferiors” and its tendency to reward mediocrity.

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Revolution in Physics

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Theory of special relativity Neither time nor space are absolute values as they vary

with observer; destabilizes orderly system of Newtonian physics

Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) The uncertainty principle: the act of observation

interferes with whatever is being observed Concepts extended to humanities and social sciences

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Revolution in Psychology

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Explored the life of the subconscious mind Repression of sexual desires and fears cause

psychological disorders

Interpretation of dreams Free association In the 1920s and 1930s: Widespread application

of his theories to mythology, religion, literature, art, etc.

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Experimentation in Art

Photography makes realism irrelevant Art as creation, not reproduction Retreat to abstraction

Les Fauves (“wild beasts”) Group of artists led by Henri Matisse and André Derain in the first decade of the 1900s. Favored wild colors and stepped away from realistic representation.

Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)

Non-western and ancient “primitive” styles influence modern European art

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Experimentation in Art

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André Derain, Charing Cross Bridge, London, 1906, Henri Matisse, Blue Nude (Souvenir de Biskra), 1907

Fauvism

Experimentation in Art

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Bust of a Man, 1908Portrait of Gertrude Stein, 1905-06

Pablo Picasso (1881–1973)

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Guitar, 1912

Experimentation in Architecture

Staatliches Bauhaus: First school for modern design Director: Walter Gropius (1883-1969) Operated from 1919 to 1925 in Weimar and from 1925 to 1933 in

Dessau; shut down by the Nazis

Teachers are practitioners and artists rather than academics No extraneous ornamentation; designers should work for

industry and mass production Bauhaus Aesthetic Leads to New Style of Skyscrapers

“Glass boxes” of the “International style” Loved by businesses and governments

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Experimentation in Architecture

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Bauhaus Dessau building designed by Gropius, opened in 1926

Poster for a 1923 Bauhaus exhibition

Oskar Schlemmer, Bauhaus Stairway, 1932

Experimentation in Architecture

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United Nations Headquarters in Manhattan designed by Le Corbusier, completed in 1952

“Glass Boxes” of the “International Style”

Lever House in Manhattan completed in 1952

European Origins of the Great Depression

Austria/Germany borrow money from U.S. to pay war debts to France and England

France and England pay debts owed to U.S. for WWI

System dependent on easy credit from U.S. banks U.S. investors begin to call in German and

Austrian loans in 1928 in part to put the money in the booming New York stock exchange

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New Technologies and the Great Depression Countries that rely economically on certain raw

commodities are hurt by new technologies that lessen demand for them Reclaimed rubber destroys rubber-based economies of

Dutch East Indies, Malaysia, Ceylon More widespread use of oil hurts the coal industry, which is

vast and employs many people in the U.S. In the late 1920s, the U.S. economy was in the middle

of a transition from a primary reliance on heavy industry to consumer good production.

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Agricultural Surpluses and the Great Depression Overproduction in 1920s in Europe, United States, Canada,

Argentina, and Australia. Strongest harvests in 1925, 1929 Wheat at lowest price in 400 years

Farm income drops Less demand for manufactured goods in the agricultural sector Inventory surpluses

The Dust Bowl: The 1930s drought and overused soil create conditions for massive wind erosion in the Great Plains, causing massive dust storms and exacerbating depression conditions.

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Agricultural Surpluses and the Great Depression

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Dust storm in the U.S. Midwest in the 1930s

Black Thursday - October 24, 1929 Small Investors: The booming stock market of the 1920s led many

brokers to sell to regular, middle-class people. Roughly 16 percent of American households owned stocks.

Speculation: Stock could be purchased on as little as a third of the face value on the assumption they would continue to go up; brokers would lend the rest.

Hints of slowdown in Europe in 1928-1929 Underlying weaknesses of U.S. economy begin to show in 1929

Consumer demand weakens early in the year; sales of automobiles had begin to drop off

September: Highly volatile stocks market; cycles of falls and recoveries Black Thursday (Oct. 24) and Black Tuesday (Oct. 29)

Market turns down, triggering a swell of panic selling; loses $30 billion in the span of a few days; the collapse turns global

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U.S. Economic Collapse

Inventory surplus leads to massive layoffs in manufacturing plants

Layoffs lead to decreased consumer demand and businesses fail

In 1932, industrial production of the U.S. is half of 1929 levels

Forty-four percent of U.S. banks out of business by the early 1930s: Deposits lost (not insured)

Because the world depended on the export of U.S. capital and the U.S. import market, this created a global effect.

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World Economic Collapse

When U.S. investors called in loans, banks in Austria and Germany became vulnerable because they had been major recipients of U.S. loans.

The Germany economy experienced a huge economic slide that by 1932 resulted in 35 percent unemployment and a 50 percent decrease in industrial production.

Foreign trade fell sharply between 1929 and 1932 causing further losses in manufacturing and employment.

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World Economic Collapse Hardest hit: countries dependent on export of

agricultural and manufactured goods Chile: Devastated since its economy was so reliant on the export of

mined copper and nitrates. Caribbean: Sugar exports decline Argentina: Beef exports decline Brazil: Global devaluation of coffee hurts the Brazilian economy greatly

and pushes industrialization efforts for economic diversity. Germany: Reliant on exporting manufactured goods, Germany suffered

greatly: 5 million unemployed by 1932, severe hyperinflation, all exacerbated by reparation payments.

Japan: Not too hard hit due to aggressive deficit spending by the government to develop heavy industries (especially munitions).

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Initial Government Attempts to Increase Demand

U.S.: “planned scarcity” in 1934 Vegetables, fruits, crops, and animals destroyed: 10 million acres

of cotton and 12,000 acres of tobacco plowed under, 6 million pigs slaughtered, and a whole California fruit crop allowed to rot on the vine.

Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath: Bitterly angry passage points to the irony of the government destroying crops at a time when people are starving.

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Initial Government Attempts to Increase Demand

From The Grapes of Wrath (published 1939):“The people come with nets to fish for potatoes in

the river and the guards hold them back; they come in rattling cars to get the dumped oranges,but the kerosene is sprayed. And they stand still and watch potatoes float by, listen to the screaming pigs being killed in a ditch and covered with quicklime, watch the mountains of oranges slop down to a putrefying ooze; and in the eyes of the people there is the failure; an in the eyes of the hungry there is a growing wrath.”

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Social Effects of the Great Depression Thinkers like French physician Charles Richet believed

that removing women from the workforce would solve the problem of male unemployment and increase the nation’s low birthrate.

Great Depression caused enormous personal suffering Millions struggled for food, clothing, and shelter Marriage and birthrates declined, suicide increased Intensified social divisions and class hatreds

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Social Effects of the Great Depression

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Great Depression Bread Line near the Brooklyn Bridge

New U.S. Strategies

Laissez-faire, “planned scarcity” approaches fail Economist John M. Keynes (1883-1946) challenged

classical economic theory: the belief that capitalism was self-correcting and operated best if left alone.

Keynes argued the depression was a problem of inadequate demand, not supply; therefore, governments should play an active role in stimulating economy and consumer demand.

Keynes: Health of the economy is not measured by production, but by employment.

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Franklin Delano Roosevelt

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The New Deal of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt anticipated many of Keynes's ideas.

After 1932, Roosevelt put in placeprotections for the banking system, massive public works projects, and farm subsidies

Creates the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Legislation established minimum wage, social security,

and the right to collective bargaining for workers' unions WWII Spending: Whether New Deal worked is still

debated; ultimately gearing up production for World War II lifted the depression.

The Bolshevik Revolution In October 1917, Lenin led an armed

uprising against the Provisional Government.Lenin renamed the Bolshevik Party (“Minority Party”) as the Communist Party in order to win wider support.

Civil War: Anti-Communist “Whites” fight against new “Red” regime from 1917 to 1922.

In December 1917 Lenin set up a secret police force known as the Cheka; agents spied on industrial workers and peasants and reported disloyalty.

Lenin launched the “Red Terror” campaign in September 1918 against anti-Soviet peasants, striking workers, and anyone associated with the White Guard. Some estimates say 50,000 people were arrested and executed in this period.

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War Communism, 1918-1922

Lenin pushes for rapid implementation of Communist reforms during “War Communism” of Civil War period

Rapid collectivization of farms and confiscations of private property

Massively unpopular, Lenin backtracks in 1921 He initiates the New Economic Policy (NEP), which

allows for partial privatization of the economy; marks a stepping back from pure Communist program

Lenin crushes workers’ strikes, peasant rebellions, and a sailor’s revolt.

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New Economic Policy (NEP)

The New Economic Policy (NEP) temporarily restored private enterprise in Russia.

Large industries, banks, and transportation and communications facilities remained under state control

Government returned small-scale industries to private ownership.

The government allowed peasants to sell their surpluses at free market prices.

Technical schools established

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Lenin’s Death

Lenin suffers three debilitating strokes and dies Jan. 21, 1924. Bitter power struggle among Bolshevik leaders ensues. Lenin had written that Stalin was too rude and lacking finesse

to become the Secretary-General.

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Stalin in the 1920s

Joseph Stalin (1879-1953)

Native of the nation of Georgia in the Caucasus

Mother’s influence leads to Orthodox seminary education

Stalin triumphs over party rivals Stalin: Name means “Man of steel” Advocates socialism in “one country”: wants to consolidate

Communism in the Soviet Union, not use it as a platform for global revolution as per Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)

Eliminates rivals; removes Trotsky from power in 1927, deports him in 1929, and has him assassinated in Mexico City in 1940

Has firm grip on rule over the Soviet Union by 1928

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Joseph Stalin, Vladimir Lenin, and Leon Trotsky

Stalin and Economic Planning Stalin initiates the First Five-Year Plan (1928-1933)

Gosplan: the Soviet central planning agency controls all aspects of the economy

Focuses on developing heavy industry, collectived farms with use of state-owned tractors, and electrification

Massive collectivization of agriculture Kulaks: peasant land-holders who resisted collectivization;

targets of government persecution

Stalin halts collectivization in 1931 Proclaims its success, although reduction in productivity and

famine resulted in 1932-33: millions die of starvation Destabilized Stalin’s power, heightening his paranoia

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The Great Purge (1937-38) “Congress of Victors” in 1934 was the 17th annual meeting of

the Communist Party in the Soviet Union, but was the last clandestine attempt to unseat Stalin, but the disloyalty was reported to Stalin.

Later nicknamed the “Congress of Victims,” because of the 1,996 delegates, over 1,100 would be arrested over the next three years.

The “Cleansing” Stalin removes all persons that he suspects of opposition from

1935-1938 Two-thirds of Central Committee Half of army’s high ranking officers Sent to labor camps or executed

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The Growth of European Fascism

From fasces, Roman symbol of state authority Axe surrounded by wooden rods

Originates with Benito Mussolini in 1919 Mussolini’s doctrine included elements of

nationalism, national syndicalism, expansionism, and anti-socialism

Corporatism: Private corporations maintained, but close control of the economy by the government

Outside of Italy and Germany: Argentina,Japan, Peru, Paraguay, Romania, Spain, etc.

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Fascism: Common Elements

1. Primacy of state over individual

2. Devotion to a strong leader

3. Ethnocentric: Faith in superiority of one’s own culture

4. Militaristic

5. Anti-communist

6. Chauvinistic: Interests of one’s nation before all others

7. Xenophobic

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Fascism in Italy Poor showing of post-WWI Italian

government Public disappointed with weak

territorial gains Economic and social turmoil

Fascist Party of Mussolini, former socialist newspaper editor, has big electoral successes in 1921

March on Rome in October 1922: King Emmanuel III offers Mussolini office of prime minister Blackshirts: Paramilitary organization that Mussolini used to

bully government to give him more political power

In 1926, he seizes power as Il Duce, “the leader”

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Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) and the Nazi Party Hitler becomes chairman of the National Socialist German

Workers’ Party (Nazis) in 1921 Attempts to overthrow Munich government in 1923 “Beer

Hall Putsch” Writes autobiography Mein Kampf in jail, which becomes

massively popular; outlines his plans clearly and capitalizes on public discontent with postwar era

Articulates anger at war guilt clause of Treaty of Versailles Expresses resentment toward the heavy reparation payments Expresses frustration with the Weimar Republic being imposed on

Germany and the major parties’ inability to come to consensus Outlines his ideas about Anti-Semitism

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Consolidation of Power

Nazis become single largest party in the Reichstag between 1930-1932, but did not have a majority

On Jan. 30, 1933, weak president Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) appoints Hitler as chancellor; conservative leaders thought they would be able to manipulate Hitler

Hitler declares an “emergency” when a Communist terrorist set fire to the Reichstag on Feb. 27, 1933, as a part of a supposed plot to take over the government

Nazis consolidate absolute power: suppress opposition, abrogates constitutional and civil rights Make the Nazis the sole legal party Destroy trade unions Purge judiciary and civil service of perceived enemies

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Reichstag Fire

The Racial State

Theories of racial superiority, racial purity Policies of eugenics

Compulsory sterilization of 30,000 Germans Abortions illegal for healthy Germans, mandatory for

“hereditary ill” and “racial aliens” Euthanasia program kills 200,000 people with physical

or mental handicaps between 1939 and 1945 Precursor to massacres of Jews, gypsies, and

homosexuals

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Anti-Semitism

Influence of nineteenth-century racism Nuremburg laws of 1935 define Jews on a racial

basis Prohibits marriages between Jews and non-Jews Removal of Jews from civil service, schools Liquidation of Jewish-owned businesses or purchase by non-Jews

Kristallnacht: major country-wide pogrom on Jews, November 9-10, 1938, encouraged by Nazi officials Means “night of broken glass”

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