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Chapter 36
The Theory of Relativity
When doing experiments on a boat sailing at constant speed on a straight line on a smooth lake, the results are the same
as on shore!
Without looking outside one cannot tell whether the ship is
moving at all
Velocity is RELATIVE to the reference frame
The idea of relativity
Frames of reference
A set of rods and rulers and clocks that allow us to determine the time
of any event and the position of any object with respect to a
reference point
Reference point
object
An inertial reference frame is a reference frame where isolated bodies are seen to move in straight lines at constant velocity.
Absolute space in its own nature, without relation to anything external, remains always similar and immovable.
The arena whereNature occurs
Space according to Newton
IsJustOne
ThingAfter
Another
Time according to Newton
Absolute and mathematical time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equally without relation to anything external
Not all frames are inertial:
Roberta is in a non-inertial
reference frame Ingrid is in an inertial
reference frame
Just shoot me
Not moving
Relative and absolute velocities
And I claim everything , including light, will behave like that: absolute space and time imply all velocities (including c) are relative
v=Speed of this bullet with respect to the target
u= its speed with respect to the tank
w= the speed of the tank
v=u+w
Just shoot me…again
The motion of the source and the speed of light
And I claim the speed of light is the same for all observers: c is absolute!
Meet Einstein
Hi
The principle of relativity
0
QdAE
0AB d
dt
dd BsE
dt
dId E
000 sB
Remember these?
Remember this? – the wave eqn2 2
2 2 2
constant constant
1
v
v
( , ) sin( )x t
d D d D
dt dx
A solution is
k
D x t A kx t
Electromagnetic waves If we look at Maxwell’s eqns where there are no charges or currents -
after a bit of math we will get…
constant2
2
constant2
2
00
tx
dx
d
dt
d EE
2 2
2 2 2
constant constant
1
vx t
d D d D
dt dx
8
0 0
1v 2.99792 10 m/sc
Maxwell’s equations: light moves with speed c
Maxwell’s equations are some of the laws of physics
If we accept the principle of relativity, light always moves with speed c
The speed of light
By stating this Einstein alsoimplied that Newtonianmechanics is flawed,
but Maxwell’s equationsare OK
The velocity of the source just adds to the velocity of the projectile…
…even for light
The velocity of the source affects the velocity of the projectile…
But the effect is smaller and smaller as the projectile speed approaches c
The speed of light is unaffected by the motion of the source
And this happens to
be right
This happens to be wrong
The speed of light is independent of the speed of the source:
The speed of light is absolute
The speed of bullets depends on the motion of the source
The speed of bullets is relative
The faster a bullet is shotthe smaller the effect of the motion of the gun
Two mirrors
Time and Special Relativity
Look first at a “light clock”.
We need:
…and a light
Time is relative….In dog-years I’d be dead
At rest with the mirrors
t=0t=1
t=1/2
reflection
Moving with respect to the mirrors
Motion of mirrors
reflection
h
Light always travels at speed c
v Mirrors at rest
vT/2
h2 :mirrors staticfor path ofLength seconds 2every sclock tick static The 0 h/cT
2/2/ 22 cTvTh
02
0
2 /1/1
/2T
cv
T
cv
chT
seconds every sclock tick moving The T
If you ride with the clock the up-down trip takes 1 second
If you watch the clock move the up down trip takes more than 1 second
Moving clocks slow down
v Mirrors at rest
I’m moving with this clock. In my reference frame the trip takes T0
seconds
for trip theframe reference In my
seconds akesclock t thisc2h
T0
seconds akesclock t that
for trip theframe reference In
2
0
cv
1
T
my
He’s at rest with
this mirror
Us
John
boom
Distance that separated us from John
In the reference frame where we are at rest:6 minutes
Us
John
boom
Distance that separated us from John
In the reference frame where John is at rest:
5 minutes
Separation in our rest frame
In the reference frame where we are at rest:
In the reference frame where John is at rest:
Separation in John’s rest frameDifferent
distances
5 minutes
6 minutes
If the principle of relativity is correct
length is relative
The numerical calculations:
In our reference frame:t = fuse-timel = distance traveled by Johnv = John’s speed of approach
In John’s reference frame:t’ = fuse-timel’ = distance traveled by usv’ = our speed of approach
2
2
2
/1'
/1
1
' '
' '
/1
' '
cvll
cvt
t
l
l
lvtlvt
cv
ttvv
Time dilation
Length contraction
Exercise 9.3
In a laboratory frame of reference an observer notes that Newton’s 2nd law is valid (to the accuracy of the instruments). Show that the same is true for an observer moving at constant speed with respect to the first.
dt
d
m
va
aF
:observerFirst
FaaF
avuvuvv
a
uuvv'
' '
)(''
constant ;
:observer Second
mmdt
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
d
dt
d
An astronomer on Earth observes a meteoroid approaching Earth at a speed of 0.8c. At the time of discovery it is 20 light years away. Find the Earth-time and meteoroid time for impact and the distance to Earth measured in the meteoroid frame of reference at time of discovery. 1 light year ~ 1016m=1year*c
1717 8
Earth 8
2 10 m) 0 8 , 20 light-years=2 10 m 8 10 s~25 years
(0 8)(3 10 m)a v . c d t
.
sccdc year-light 126.020)/8.0(120 ) 2met
met
met metEarth met2
12) 15 years
0 8Alternative: on the meteoroid the Earth clocks are slow so
25 years 15 years0.61 (0.8)
cb t
. c
t tt t
Exercise 9.11
A spacecraft with proper length of 300 m takes 0.75 s to pass an Earthly observer. What is the spacecraft speed with respect to Earth?
c.v
cv
cv
v
cv
80 75.0/
/1
1075.0/1300
2
62
sv
l75.0Earth
m 300 ;/1 02
0Earth lcvll
A meter stick is moving along its long axis near the speed of light. A stationary observer will observe that the meter stick is
• a. longer than one meter.
• b. shorter than one meter.
• c. one meter in length.
• d. moving faster than the speed of light.
• e. moving into the future.
The addition of velocities
22 /1'
/' 1
'
cvu
vuu
cvu
vuu
v=velocity of reference frameu’=velocity of object in reference frame
u=velocity on earth
Exercise
A spacecraft moves at 0.8 c relative to Earth and fires a rocket in the forward direction moving at 0.9 c. What must be the rocket’s speed relative to the Earth?
2 2
v=rocket speed=0.8c
In the spacecraft frame: ' rocket speed=0.9c
' 0.8 0.9On earth: 0.99
1 '/ 1 (0.8 ')(0.9 ) /
u
v u c cu c
vu c u c c
E=mc2
If the principle of relativity is correct,
Energy and mass are equivalent
E=m c2
Exercise 9.39
The power output of the sun is 3.77 x 1026 W. How much mass is converted into energy every second?
kg/s1019.41077.3
time
Mass 92
26
c
second.per nsmillion to 4...about
In a nuclear power plant fuel rods last 3 years. During that time the plant produces 1 GW of power, what is the loss of mass in the rods?
2
2
9
16
Energy produced Power time mass-lost
Power timemass-lost
10 (3 365 24 3600)
9 101.04 kg
c
c
If the radiance of a thousand sunsWere to burst at once into the sky,That would be like the splendor of the Mighty One...I am become Death,The shatterer of Worlds.
Hiroshima:• 66,000 people died and 69,000 injured from the blast, • In a few weeks the number of dead had risen to 130,000• Then to 200,000 in 5 years
Nagasaki • Between 60,000 and 70,000 people died form the blast, • 50,000 more died within 5 years.
The fate of more than 300,000 people was sealed in the fraction of a second it took these bombs to explode.
For comparison, there were about 620,000 casualties in the American civil war that lasted 5 years.
Current atomic weapons are roughly 100 times more potent than those dropped on Japan in 1945.
• 1. What happens to the way a clock measures time as observed by a stationary observer as the clock increases its speed?
• a. It speeds up.• b. It slows down.• c. It stays the same.• d. It stops.• e. The hands move with simple harmonic
motion.
Which of the following is a postulate of relativity theory?
• a. Space and time are invariant.
• b. Mass and energy are equivalent.
• c. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers no matter what the source velocity is.
• d. Energy is conserved in elastic collisions.
• e. Gravity can bend light.