Chapter 5: Needs and MotivesChapter 5: Needs and Motives

Theories of PersonalityTheories of Personality

February 7, 2003February 7, 2003Class #3Class #3

Henry MurrayHenry Murray(1893-1988)(1893-1988)

He coined the term He coined the term personology to refer to personology to refer to the effort to the effort to understand the whole understand the whole person rather than person rather than breaking a personality breaking a personality into parts into parts

We mentioned in class We mentioned in class 1 that he believed in 1 that he believed in the idiographic the idiographic approach centering on approach centering on the uniqueness of the uniqueness of each individualeach individual

Murray’s BackgroundMurray’s Background As a child, he had a very poor relationship with his As a child, he had a very poor relationship with his

mothermother He was the middle child of threeHe was the middle child of three As a child, he had a stuttering problem and was cross-As a child, he had a stuttering problem and was cross-

eyedeyed Undergraduate studies at Harvard where he Undergraduate studies at Harvard where he

concentrated in history and graduated in 1915concentrated in history and graduated in 1915 He admits that he really wasn’t focused on academics He admits that he really wasn’t focused on academics

and his most passionate interests were rowing and and his most passionate interests were rowing and romance romance

Not until he entered medical school at Columbia did Not until he entered medical school at Columbia did Murray become serious about his studies, graduating Murray become serious about his studies, graduating first in his classfirst in his class

Following medical school, he earned a Master's in Following medical school, he earned a Master's in biology at Columbia and did a surgical internship at biology at Columbia and did a surgical internship at Presbyterian HospitalPresbyterian Hospital

Murray’s BackgroundMurray’s Background Following his internship, Murray spent four years Following his internship, Murray spent four years

studying chicken embryos at the Rockefeller studying chicken embryos at the Rockefeller Institute, then continued his research at Institute, then continued his research at Cambridge University, where he earned a PhD in Cambridge University, where he earned a PhD in biochemistry in 1927 biochemistry in 1927

Murray became interested in psychology through Murray became interested in psychology through reading Carl Jung's Psychological types in 1923 reading Carl Jung's Psychological types in 1923 and meeting Jung for three weeks in Switzerland and meeting Jung for three weeks in Switzerland in 1925in 1925

His interest was spurred on by his “acquaintance” His interest was spurred on by his “acquaintance” with Christiana Morgan, an artist who shared his with Christiana Morgan, an artist who shared his fascination with Jung, the unconscious and the fascination with Jung, the unconscious and the writings of Herman Melvillewritings of Herman Melville

Eventually, he went on to teach at HarvardEventually, he went on to teach at Harvard

Interesting note…Interesting note…

You can see Murray received his You can see Murray received his bachelor’s degree at the age of 22, bachelor’s degree at the age of 22, then went on to earn his MD at the then went on to earn his MD at the age of 26age of 26– Additionally, he earned his Master’s in Additionally, he earned his Master’s in

biology and Ph.D. in biochemistry by the biology and Ph.D. in biochemistry by the age of 34age of 34

– And then became famous in psychologyAnd then became famous in psychology– Not bad…Not bad…

Murray’s BackgroundMurray’s Background Murray had married Josephine Rantoul in Murray had married Josephine Rantoul in

1916, but then fell in love with Morgan, and 1916, but then fell in love with Morgan, and somehow, during the forty-six years of his somehow, during the forty-six years of his first marriage, managed to balance his first marriage, managed to balance his loyalties to both his wife and mistressloyalties to both his wife and mistress

After those women died in the 1960s, Murray After those women died in the 1960s, Murray married Nina Fish, with whom he lived until married Nina Fish, with whom he lived until his death his death

The brightest spot in Murray's later years was The brightest spot in Murray's later years was no doubt his relationship with Ninano doubt his relationship with Nina

Murray told a friend, "If you get into your late Murray told a friend, "If you get into your late seventies and you're debating whether you seventies and you're debating whether you should get married again--do it!"should get married again--do it!"

Another interesting Another interesting note…note…

While at Harvard he was part of While at Harvard he was part of stimulating environment that included stimulating environment that included Gordon Allport and Raymond CattellGordon Allport and Raymond Cattell– At that time, At that time, Ted KaczynskiTed Kaczynski, the serial , the serial

bomber was a participant in one of bomber was a participant in one of Murray’s psychological experimentsMurray’s psychological experiments

– The study had to do with identifying The study had to do with identifying men who would not break under men who would not break under pressurepressure

Murray’s Personological Murray’s Personological SystemSystem

Focus is on the Focus is on the process of personalityprocess of personality rather rather than relying on the static concepts such as:than relying on the static concepts such as:– Enduring structures of the mindEnduring structures of the mind

System-dynamic influences with feedbackSystem-dynamic influences with feedback Emphasis on integrated, dynamic nature of Emphasis on integrated, dynamic nature of

individual as complex organism responding to individual as complex organism responding to specific environmentspecific environment

Importance of needs and motivationsImportance of needs and motivations Felt that motivational processes and the Felt that motivational processes and the

pressures that these processes placed on pressures that these processes placed on individuals basically made up much of our individuals basically made up much of our disposition…thus influencing our behaviordisposition…thus influencing our behavior

Basic Theoretical Basic Theoretical ElementsElements

NeedsNeeds MotivesMotives Environmental PressEnvironmental Press

Basic Theoretical Basic Theoretical ElementsElements

NeedsNeeds– An internal state that’s less than An internal state that’s less than

satisfactorysatisfactory– It lacks something necessary for a It lacks something necessary for a

person’s well-beingperson’s well-being

NeedsNeeds

Murray (1962)Murray (1962)– Needs are internal (but can be provoked Needs are internal (but can be provoked

by environmental press)by environmental press)– Necessitate taking action in social Necessitate taking action in social

environmentenvironment– Readiness to respond in a certain way Readiness to respond in a certain way

under given circumstancesunder given circumstances

Types of NeedsTypes of Needs

Viscerogenic needsViscerogenic needs– These are our primary needs which are biological in These are our primary needs which are biological in

naturenature– Food, water, sex, avoidance of pain, etc. – helps us Food, water, sex, avoidance of pain, etc. – helps us

to achieve homeostasisto achieve homeostasis– Homeostasis is the motivational phenomenon for Homeostasis is the motivational phenomenon for

primary drives that preserves our internal primary drives that preserves our internal equilibriumequilibrium

Psychogenic needsPsychogenic needs– These are our secondary needs These are our secondary needs – These needs are basically psychological in nature These needs are basically psychological in nature – Secondary needs that are not crucial to a person's Secondary needs that are not crucial to a person's

lifelife

MotivesMotives McClelland (1984)McClelland (1984)

– Motives are clusters of cognition Motives are clusters of cognition with affective overtones, organized with affective overtones, organized around preferred experiences and around preferred experiences and goalsgoals

MotivesMotives Motives are based on needs: Motives are based on needs:

– There are states of tension within a person, There are states of tension within a person, and as need is satisfied, tension is reduced and as need is satisfied, tension is reduced

– Motives propel people to perceive, think, Motives propel people to perceive, think, and act in ways that serve to satisfy a need and act in ways that serve to satisfy a need

– Motivational psychologists stress the Motivational psychologists stress the importance of internal psychological needs importance of internal psychological needs and urges that propel people to think, and urges that propel people to think, perceive, and act in predictable ways perceive, and act in predictable ways

– Some motives are thought to operate Some motives are thought to operate outside awareness outside awareness

– Reliance on projective techniquesReliance on projective techniques

Measuring MotivesMeasuring Motives

Manifest needsManifest needs– Can be openly observedCan be openly observed

Latent needsLatent needs– Are not openly displayedAre not openly displayed

Thematic Apperception Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Test (TAT)

Measures latent needs (needs that can Measures latent needs (needs that can not be openly observed)not be openly observed)– ApperceptionApperception is the process of projecting is the process of projecting

imagery onto an outside stimulus, such as imagery onto an outside stimulus, such as a picture. The theory suggests the stories a picture. The theory suggests the stories you describe reflect your latent you describe reflect your latent motivations (dispositional needs)motivations (dispositional needs)

– It assesses your motives by telling or It assesses your motives by telling or writing a story about ambiguous pictures writing a story about ambiguous pictures

Late in life Murray admitted that Christina Late in life Murray admitted that Christina Morgan was the true author of the TATMorgan was the true author of the TAT

Environmental PressEnvironmental Press Basically, an external condition that creates an inner Basically, an external condition that creates an inner

desire to obtain or avoid somethingdesire to obtain or avoid something Can be thought of as a push of the situation or from Can be thought of as a push of the situation or from

other people or events in the environmentother people or events in the environment– Get out of rain, get enough to eat, deal with Get out of rain, get enough to eat, deal with

rejection or competitionrejection or competition– Where concept of “Peer Pressure” arisesWhere concept of “Peer Pressure” arises

Emphasis of social roles and situational determinantsEmphasis of social roles and situational determinants– E.g.: Need to excel leads to cheating E.g.: Need to excel leads to cheating

Combination of internal motivations & external Combination of internal motivations & external demandsdemands

Murray’s ApproachMurray’s Approach

His interactionist approach combines:His interactionist approach combines:– Unconscious motivation of Freud, Jung & Unconscious motivation of Freud, Jung &

AdlerAdler– Environmental pressures of LewinEnvironmental pressures of Lewin– Trait concept of AllportTrait concept of Allport

His definition of personalityHis definition of personality– Branch of psychology which concerns itself Branch of psychology which concerns itself

with the study of human lives and factors with the study of human lives and factors which influence their life course and which which influence their life course and which investigates individual differencesinvestigates individual differences

Murray’s ApproachMurray’s Approach System of NeedsSystem of Needs

– Individuals have either high or low Individuals have either high or low needs for the following…needs for the following… AchievementAchievement PowerPower AffiliationAffiliation IntimacyIntimacy ExhibitionExhibition

Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement

Murray(1938)Murray(1938)– He defined He defined achievement motivationachievement motivation

as:as: A desire for significant A desire for significant

accomplishment, for mastering skills accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control over things or or ideas, for control over things or people, and for rapidly attaining a people, and for rapidly attaining a high standard of excellence high standard of excellence

The desire to do things well and feel The desire to do things well and feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles pleasure in overcoming obstacles – E.g., sports, science, business, etc. E.g., sports, science, business, etc.

Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement

People with a high People with a high need need achievementachievement are motivated to are motivated to master tasks and take great pride in master tasks and take great pride in doing so doing so – In contrast, people with low In contrast, people with low

achievement needs seem to enjoy achievement needs seem to enjoy success because they have avoided success because they have avoided failurefailure

Characteristics of High Need AchieversCharacteristics of High Need Achievers

Easy, Hard, or Moderate Goals?Easy, Hard, or Moderate Goals?– People with a high need to achieve set People with a high need to achieve set

challenging but realistic goals that have clear challenging but realistic goals that have clear outcomesoutcomes They like these intermediate tasks because it They like these intermediate tasks because it

provides the most information about their provides the most information about their abilityability

If they do well on an easy task – who caresIf they do well on an easy task – who cares If you fail at a hard task – well, no one does If you fail at a hard task – well, no one does

well on those well on those Same thing applies to their risk-Same thing applies to their risk-

taking tendencies…taking tendencies…– Moderate risk-takersModerate risk-takers

Characteristics of High Need AchieversCharacteristics of High Need Achievers

Feedback or not?Feedback or not?– They like feedback from competent critics (ASAP, They like feedback from competent critics (ASAP,

please)please)– Concrete feedback is bestConcrete feedback is best

Stay or move on to easier things?Stay or move on to easier things?– Stay and persevere – “never give up”Stay and persevere – “never give up”

Concern or no concern for Concern or no concern for measurements of success?measurements of success?– Very concernedVery concerned– Bonuses, incentives, etc. are very important Bonuses, incentives, etc. are very important

This is closely related to feedback This is closely related to feedback

Characteristics of High Need AchieversCharacteristics of High Need Achievers

Social problems?Social problems?– Unfortunately, often this is the caseUnfortunately, often this is the case

Strong need to be able to anticipate Strong need to be able to anticipate and make long term plansand make long term plans– Not really into surprisesNot really into surprises– Need to have things mapped outNeed to have things mapped out

They use information well in their They use information well in their planningplanning– This helps them to avoid those surprises This helps them to avoid those surprises

mentioned abovementioned above

Characteristics of High Need AchieversCharacteristics of High Need Achievers

Very energetic approachVery energetic approach– To all things but especially to workTo all things but especially to work– They like to workThey like to work– They are especially invigorated by They are especially invigorated by

creative tasks creative tasks

Resultant Achievement Resultant Achievement MotivationMotivation

Several researchers combined participants’ Several researchers combined participants’ scores obtained on TAT and on test anxiety scores obtained on TAT and on test anxiety measures to determine a “RAM” scoremeasures to determine a “RAM” score

This is looking at achievement motivation at This is looking at achievement motivation at a slightly different angle…a slightly different angle…

– Might be more to this than the early Might be more to this than the early researchers suggested…researchers suggested…

– Do many of us have a simultaneous Do many of us have a simultaneous desire to do both??? desire to do both???

Resultant Achievement MotivationResultant Achievement Motivation

Motive to succeed may actually be a Motive to succeed may actually be a combination of wanting to achieve combination of wanting to achieve something, but also wanting just as something, but also wanting just as badly (maybe even more so) to avoid badly (maybe even more so) to avoid failing in an achievement-related failing in an achievement-related situationsituation– Hence you avoid failing if you don't tryHence you avoid failing if you don't try– However, you can also avoid failing if you However, you can also avoid failing if you

succeedsucceed

Resultant Achievement MotivationResultant Achievement Motivation

People high in RAM have a high motive to People high in RAM have a high motive to approach success and a low motive to approach success and a low motive to avoid failure avoid failure

People low in RAM have a low motive to People low in RAM have a low motive to approach success and a high motive to approach success and a high motive to avoid failureavoid failure

If this is true, it would appear that there If this is true, it would appear that there are two distinct motivations occurring in are two distinct motivations occurring in these individuals…these individuals…

But maybe, they aren’t But maybe, they aren’t really that different?really that different?

Or can we say the 11 year old who Or can we say the 11 year old who feigns a sickness on the day of the feigns a sickness on the day of the big spelling contest has a similar big spelling contest has a similar need for achievement as a friend need for achievement as a friend who shows up with a tremendous who shows up with a tremendous desire and confidence to win??? desire and confidence to win???

Implications to these different Implications to these different motivations…motivations…

Elliott and Sheldon (1997)Elliott and Sheldon (1997)– Reported findings that suggest that Reported findings that suggest that

people who spend their time and effort people who spend their time and effort trying to avoid failure report poorer well-trying to avoid failure report poorer well-being and less satisfaction with their being and less satisfaction with their performances than do people who are performances than do people who are trying to approach successtrying to approach success

Need for PowerNeed for Power

The need to have influence over The need to have influence over others, to have prestige, to feel others, to have prestige, to feel strong, compared to othersstrong, compared to others

Found in those with a tendency to Found in those with a tendency to acquire high status possessions and acquire high status possessions and to surround oneself with symbols of to surround oneself with symbols of powerpower

Seek positions and offices which are Seek positions and offices which are controlling over otherscontrolling over others

Can be expressed in a couple of Can be expressed in a couple of ways…ways…

A high need for power may be A high need for power may be expressed as: expressed as:

““personalized power” personalized power”

or or "socialized power""socialized power"

Personalized PowerPersonalized Power

People with high personalized power may have little People with high personalized power may have little inhibition or self control, and they exercise power inhibition or self control, and they exercise power impulsivelyimpulsively

Correlated with this are tendencies to be rude, Correlated with this are tendencies to be rude, excessive use of alcohol, sexual harassment, and excessive use of alcohol, sexual harassment, and collecting symbols of power collecting symbols of power – For example: big offices, desks, fancy cars, etc.For example: big offices, desks, fancy cars, etc.

When they give advice or support, it is with strategic When they give advice or support, it is with strategic intent to further bolster their own statusintent to further bolster their own status

In business these individuals demand loyalty to their In business these individuals demand loyalty to their leadership rather than to the organizationleadership rather than to the organization

When they leave the organization there is likely When they leave the organization there is likely disorder and breakdown of team morale and direction disorder and breakdown of team morale and direction

Socialized PowerSocialized Power

Is often associated with effective Is often associated with effective leadershipleadership

These leaders direct their power in socially These leaders direct their power in socially positive ways that benefit others and the positive ways that benefit others and the organization rather than only contributing organization rather than only contributing to the leader's status and gainto the leader's status and gain

They seek power because it is through They seek power because it is through power that tasks are accomplishedpower that tasks are accomplished

They are more hesitant to use power in a They are more hesitant to use power in a manipulative mannermanipulative manner

Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation

The motive to spend time with others, to The motive to spend time with others, to be in social relationshipsbe in social relationships

Need to draw near to & win affection of Need to draw near to & win affection of othersothers

Motivation to have lots of friendsMotivation to have lots of friends

Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation

These individuals want to be thought These individuals want to be thought of as:of as:– Agreeable Agreeable – They go along with group pressure They go along with group pressure – Want to be accepted and liked by other Want to be accepted and liked by other

people people – Nervous if they think people are judging Nervous if they think people are judging

their interpersonal skills their interpersonal skills

Low nAFF vs. High nAFFLow nAFF vs. High nAFF A person low in affiliation tends to be a loner A person low in affiliation tends to be a loner

who is uncomfortable socializing with others who is uncomfortable socializing with others except for a few close friends or family except for a few close friends or family (introversion?)(introversion?)

They may lack motivation or energy to They may lack motivation or energy to maintain high social contacts in networking, maintain high social contacts in networking, group presentations, public relations, and group presentations, public relations, and building close personal relations with peers building close personal relations with peers and subordinatesand subordinates

Those with high nAFF are reluctant to let Those with high nAFF are reluctant to let work interfere with harmonious relationshipswork interfere with harmonious relationships

Need for IntimacyNeed for Intimacy (I) (I)

A desire to experience warm, close and A desire to experience warm, close and communicative exchanges with another communicative exchanges with another personperson

To feel close to another personTo feel close to another person– High I: More one to one exchanges with High I: More one to one exchanges with

other people than those lower in other people than those lower in II– Men with higher intimacy motivation at age Men with higher intimacy motivation at age

30 have greater marital and job satisfaction 30 have greater marital and job satisfaction at 47 than those with less at 47 than those with less I I

Helgeson and Sharpsteen Helgeson and Sharpsteen (1987)(1987)

Make the suggestion that strong Make the suggestion that strong intimacy needs may threaten intimacy needs may threaten men's sense of masculinity men's sense of masculinity

Need for ExhibitionNeed for Exhibition

Need for emotional communicationNeed for emotional communication Need to show self before others and Need to show self before others and

amuse, entertain, excite or even amuse, entertain, excite or even shock othersshock others

Colorful, spellbinding, noticeable, Colorful, spellbinding, noticeable, dramatic & showydramatic & showy

Expressive style is the clue to this Expressive style is the clue to this needneed

David McClellandDavid McClelland(1917-1998)(1917-1998)

He received his B.A. degree in He received his B.A. degree in 1938 from Wesleyan University 1938 from Wesleyan University and his M.A. in 1939 from the and his M.A. in 1939 from the University of Missouri. His University of Missouri. His received his Ph.D. in received his Ph.D. in experimental psychology from experimental psychology from Yale University in 1941Yale University in 1941

He taught at the Connecticut He taught at the Connecticut College for Women in New College for Women in New London, Connecticut and London, Connecticut and Wesleyan University prior to Wesleyan University prior to accepting a position at Harvard accepting a position at Harvard University in 1956. After 30 University in 1956. After 30 years at Harvard, he moved to years at Harvard, he moved to Boston University in 1987, where Boston University in 1987, where he was a Distinguished Research he was a Distinguished Research Professor of Psychology until his Professor of Psychology until his death in March 1998 at the age death in March 1998 at the age of 80 of 80

McClelland’s BiographyMcClelland’s Biography Along with John Atkinson, he developed the scoring Along with John Atkinson, he developed the scoring

system for the system for the Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test Later, he became interested in the relationship Later, he became interested in the relationship

between achievement motivation and economic between achievement motivation and economic developmentdevelopment

Before his death, he conducted research on Before his death, he conducted research on physiological influences on achievement motivationphysiological influences on achievement motivation

McClelland received numerous awards for his McClelland received numerous awards for his research, including the American Psychological research, including the American Psychological Association Award for Distinguished Scientific Association Award for Distinguished Scientific Contribution in 1987Contribution in 1987

Patterned Needs: Patterned Needs: Inhibited Power MotivationInhibited Power Motivation

McClelland (1979)McClelland (1979) – Some people have a low need for Some people have a low need for

affiliation and a high need for poweraffiliation and a high need for power– Makes for a good leader?Makes for a good leader?– How about for a good professor?How about for a good professor?

Just kidding…Just kidding…

McAdams (1995)McAdams (1995)

Narrative ApproachNarrative Approach– Studying motivations of individuals Studying motivations of individuals

through biographies (one’s life story)through biographies (one’s life story)– Story of one’s life becomes one’s Story of one’s life becomes one’s

identityidentity– At each stage of life, internal At each stage of life, internal

inclinations lead us to seek out and inclinations lead us to seek out and respond to certain situations which in respond to certain situations which in turn help to further shape our turn help to further shape our inclinations and identity inclinations and identity

We want to continue to play our We want to continue to play our favorite character…favorite character…

Personality can be conceptualized at the Personality can be conceptualized at the level of identitylevel of identity

Identity, or the life narrative, is the Identity, or the life narrative, is the relatively coherent story or set of stories relatively coherent story or set of stories that people use to bring coherence and that people use to bring coherence and unity to their livesunity to their lives

We are motivated to be consistent – when We are motivated to be consistent – when we aren’t sure what to do we look back in we aren’t sure what to do we look back in history – and thus are motivated to do history – and thus are motivated to do what best fits our identitywhat best fits our identity

AssessmentAssessment

Self-Reports and TAT: Low CorrelationSelf-Reports and TAT: Low Correlation – Why???Why???

Power and Alcohol AbusePower and Alcohol Abuse

McClelland and his colleagues (1972, McClelland and his colleagues (1972, 1975): suggest that the need for 1975): suggest that the need for power can lead to problem drinking…power can lead to problem drinking…– Drinking alcohol leads to feelings of Drinking alcohol leads to feelings of

power?power?– They’re unaware of this?They’re unaware of this?

A power motive?A power motive? McClelland (1975)McClelland (1975)

– Argues that the alcohol-aggression Argues that the alcohol-aggression relationship is conditional upon relationship is conditional upon individual power needsindividual power needs

– Substance abuse and woman abuse may Substance abuse and woman abuse may share common origins in a need to share common origins in a need to achieve personal power and control achieve personal power and control

– Small quantities of a substance tend to Small quantities of a substance tend to increase a social user's sense of increase a social user's sense of altruistic power, or the power to help altruistic power, or the power to help othersothers

McClelland (1975)McClelland (1975)

A large quantity of a substance for A large quantity of a substance for social users, or any quantity of a social users, or any quantity of a substance for substance abusers, substance for substance abusers, tends to increase the user's sense of tends to increase the user's sense of personal power and domination over personal power and domination over others rather than their altruistic others rather than their altruistic powerpower

A gender difference?A gender difference?

Graham (1980)Graham (1980)– This power-using relationship seems to be specific This power-using relationship seems to be specific

to men and is reinforced by many culturesto men and is reinforced by many cultures

Major criticisms of motive Major criticisms of motive theories…theories…

Murray developed his list of needs Murray developed his list of needs from his own intuition – much of from his own intuition – much of scientific method was lackingscientific method was lacking

Can’t understand the dynamics of Can’t understand the dynamics of personality by studying one motive personality by studying one motive at a timeat a time