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CHAPTER 7
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
TOURISM ON MALDIVES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The tourism of Maldives is primarily attracted to the natural resources of
the country; the reefs, beaches, and mountains. In the global, tourism
industry in general, nature tourism is becoming increasingly popular; in
terms of the number of visitors, but also for promoters, who stress the
charismatic environmental assets of tourist destinations in their
promotional material. A number of different criteria have been used to
identify the magnitude of impact of tourism on environment both positive
as well as negative.
7.2 TOURISM INDICATOR
Tourists first started coming to the Maldives in significant numbers in
1972 when the first resort, with a 280-bed capacity, was established. In
the years since, five phases can be identified in the development of the
Maldivian tourism industry (MTCA, 2008a). During the year of inception
of tourism in Maldives, in 1972, only 1097 tourists visited the Maldives.
The number of annual tourist arrivals (reaching over 800,000 in 2010)
now exceeds the total indigenous population of about 310,000. Europe is
the leading generating market followed by the Asian market. Germany
and Italy are the two main suppliers of tourists, shared 80% of the total
tourist arrivals to the Maldives in 2010.
In the late 1970s, international tourism became an important source of
income for people of Maldives. The readiness of the Maldives to develop
its tourist sector can only be understood in terms of its very limited
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economic possibilities, especially the absence of local raw materials to
diversify into exports of manufactures. At 9 % of gross domestic product,
which provides over 23 percent of the government revenue and
contributes around 68 percent of the country’s foreign exchange earnings,
tourism is the largest contributor to the economy and it is increasing in
importance yearly.
7.3 TOURISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Tourism depends on environmental quality more than any other activity
and a central precept that has been preached in tourism is not to kill the
goose that lays the golden eggs. Yet, in general, it is characterized by
rapid, short-term development which more often than not damages the
very environment. Without careful attention, the balance between the
volume and type of tourist activity, and the sensitivity and carrying
capacities of the resources being developed, tourism projects can be not
only environmentally harmful but also economically self-defeating.
Tourism in the Maldives exists solely due to the physical and geographic
features of the coral islands. The beauty of the underwater world at the
reefs, clean water in the lagoons, white and pristine sandy beaches, a rich
island vegetation and ideal tropical climate which form a virtual paradise
that attracts tourists from Europe and Asia.
7.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM
The first proper evaluation of tourism in the Maldives was carried out in
1983 after 10 years of tourism development. It was revealed that the
pollution of the sea with garbage, piles of waste found in the resorts often
close to the tourist cottages, the picking of corals, the use of pear guns
were features present that did not fit into the tourists, Image of the
Maldives. In 1991, after almost two decades of tourism development in
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the Maldives, the perception of impacts has changed. According to the
present perceptions, the islands offer uncommon visual beauty unspoiled
by human settlement, virtually unsurpassed marine environment and the
strongest of all, unspoiled, under populated tiny tropical islands replete
with natural beauty and abundant sea life.
The Environmental Protocol prepared in 1992 by the Ministry of
Planning and Environment to determine the carrying capacity constraints
in the tourism sector concluded that the natural resources of the Maldives
are in a sufficiently pristine state, and of such high aesthetic quality, that
a period exists in which environmental deterioration can occur without an
adverse effect on tourism. However, concern was expressed that the
duration of this period cannot be predicted and with increasing
environmental pressures, rising environmental sensitivity, and without
compensatory environmental management, adverse effects may be felt
sooner than later.
According to a survey carried-out in August 1995 (Ministry of Planning,
Human Resources and Environment) involving the management of 47
resorts, beach erosion was identified to be the major existing
environmental problem facing the resorts. The highly dynamic Maldivian
beaches erode and build in response to wave action associated with
storms, the tidal cycle, and the monsoons. The results of a survey carried
out in 1992 showed that 12.8 percent of the total shoreline of 32 resorts
surveyed consists of seawalls and groins and is not sandy. The same
survey also showed that 12 of the 32 resorts surveyed (38 percent) had
offshore breakwaters to protect the beach. The maintenance of natural
beach is of paramount importance to attract clients to the resorts and the
construction of artificial structures designed to control and limit beach
erosion are not only unsightly but also expensive.
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Rubbish on beach is the next environmental problem identified by the
resort management. Rubbish on beach mainly results from waste dumped
at sea irresponsibly by neighbouring resorts and inhabited islands that get
washed ashore onto islands with the current and to some extent from the
messy habits of certain tourists. The resort management is quite emotive
on this issue as this is one issue that will reflect very badly on the image
of the resort environment.
7.5 SEWAGE DISPOSAL
In 1980 only two resorts were reported as discharging saltwater flushed
toilets to the open sea. In a survey of methods of sewage disposal
reported from 34 resorts in 1992, 23 resorts disposed sewage into the
ground while 11 discharged sewage to the sea.
A survey in 1993 (Ministry of Planning, Human Resources and
Environment) revealed that at 67 percent of tourist resorts sewage
effluent is piped into septic tanks, and the untreated sludge is dealt with
by natural processes and soil absorption. At 33 percent of the resorts
analysed, septic tanks and sea outfalls were the reported practices.
Measures to protect the environment in cases of direct sewage discharge
include the location of outfall pipes which is around100 meters from the
island and 30 meters below the mean sea level.
Sewage disposal has both health implications and environmental
consequences. Aquifer contamination by faecal coliform bacteria or the
contamination of bathing waters which could give rise to health
problems. Since a very small percentage of resorts pump sewage into the
sea and even so, these resorts have a very small population, it might be
concluded that the current levels of sewage emission into the coastal
waters of the resorts do not pose any serious problems to human health.
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The capacity constraints survey carried out in 1992 showed that the
sewage discharges from resorts are relatively small and the observed
effects were limited. Even though the volume of waste matter disposed is
quite small, nutrients from sewage could build up over time, especially if
the process of discharge is not managed well. However, volumes of water
and rates of water exchange are large and in view of the productive
fisheries, the atolls are probably subject to relatively high nutrient input
from upwelling as oceanic currents hit them.
7.6 GROUNDWATER
There is an increasing move away from using groundwater as a resource
in tourist resorts. Drinking water in tourist resort comes from rainwater
which is collected on roofs and stored in large tanks and is now
supplemented by desalinated water and imported bottled mineral water.
There has also been a move away from the system in which groundwater
was used for showering and flushing toilets to one in which saltwater is
used for flushing with the wastewater pumped out to sea and desalinated
water used for showering. Groundwater quality deterioration could be
caused through increasing abstraction of groundwater which depletes the
already thin freshwater lends; salt water intrusion into the freshwater
aquifer; and contamination of ground water from sewage discharges. In
addition to sewage, groundwater can also be contaminated through the
use of contaminated soils; the excessive use of fertilizers; the use of
pesticides; and inappropriate solid and liquid waste disposal.
An analysis of groundwater (MWSA) quality and pollution in tourist
resorts, based on the results of Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority
surveys and consultants showed that groundwater quality in the resorts is
deteriorating. However, the capacity constraints study in 1992 concluded
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that whilst there is some evidence that groundwater quality has
deteriorated on some resorts through tourism, the deterioration is not
significant and is unlikely to be irreversible. The study also suggested
(MWSA) a number of factors mitigating any possible deterioration and
they are:
I. The contaminant adsorption properties of coralline soils are
generally extremely limited.
II. High rainfall backed up by evidence that salinity vary widely on
many of the islands between the wet and dry season indicates that
flushing rates, and oxidation, of contaminants are likely to be
rapid.
III. The sources of pollution are relatively benign though more and
more pesticides are being used and rubbish buried on islands.
IV. Before upgrading, resorts traditionally used groundwater flushing
for toilets and for showering, this minimizes the historic loss of
groundwater.
One advantage of this is that any contaminants should be flushed out
eventually. This is good for the state of the groundwater but not so good
for adjacent lagoon waters.
7.7 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
A major pressure on the environment arises from the wastes and
pollutants produced as a by-product of domestic and industrial activities.
Solid waste disposal is now one of the most critical environmental issues
in the Maldives. The amount and the rate of solid waste generated vary
throughout the country and there is a significant difference between the
amount of waste generated in Male and that of in the atolls.
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Figure:7. 1
Figure:7. 2
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
450000
In T
on
s
Years
Waste Transported To Thilafushi From Male'
(1999 - 2008)
Glass
Plastic
Organic
Non-organic
Domestic
Wood
Saw Dust
Oil & Fuel
Scrap Iron
Construction debris
Industrial
Total
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
140000
160000
In T
on
s
Year
Waste Transported To Thilafushi
1999-2008
Industrial
Domestic
Villingili
Hulhumale'
K.Dhoonidhoo
Other Islands
Male' International Airport
Resotrs
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The amount of solid waste generated in Malé has been increasing at an
alarming rate over the past 10 years. (Figure 7.1 to 7.2) shows that the
solid waste generated has been almost doubled within the period 1999 to
2008 the waste generation has increased form 7.15 kg in 1999 to 13.36
kg. On an average 2.48 kg of waste are generated per capita per day in
Malé while in the atolls this value is around 0.66 kg of waste per capita
per day. Average waste generation in the resorts stands at 7.2 kg per
guest per day (JICA, 1998). The rapidly developing construction
industry is contributing significantly to the composition of the waste.
The large quantity of waste is generated coupled with limited land area
and technology makes the disposal of waste a challenge for the country.
Until 1991, solid waste generated in Malé was used for land reclamation
in Malé. Presently, solid waste genera ted in Male is collected and taken
to a transfer station. From the transfer station, the waste is transported to
Thilafushi, a municipal landfill, located at 5 km away from Malé. The
Thilafushi landfill site has now become a landfill for the central region
of the country. In addition to waste from Male, now it receives waste
from islands in Malé atoll, the resorts and the Malé International Airport.
Solid wastes generated in the atolls are disposed using various methods.
Organic wastes are composted at home backyard in most of the islands.
Non- biodegradable waste such as plastics is dumped near the beach in
many islands and buried in a few islands. Burning of combustible waste
at designated areas in the islands are also widely practised in many
islands.
Current waste disposal practices adversely affect the environment
through habitat destruction and pollution. Often, wetland areas such as
swamps and mangroves are considered as "useless" areas and therefore
dumping of solid waste in such areas is acceptable practice and
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reclamation of such areas to increase land space often takes place.
Dumping of solid waste near beaches also has adverse effects on the
reefs and lagoons of the islands.
The amount of hazardous waste generated in the Maldives is very small.
In 1999, it was estimated that 0.4 ton of hazardous waste was generated
daily in Malé. Though figures for hazardous waste generated for the
atolls have not been estimated, but it is believed that the generation of
hazardous waste would be very small. Hazardous waste mainly includes
clinical wastes and waste oil from electric generators and vehicles. At
present, hazardous wastes generated in Malé are transported to
Thilafushi. Thilafalhu as a landfill (map7.1) was made on December 5,
1991. Thilafushi received its first load of garbage from Malé on the
January 7, 1992.
During its early years of waste disposal operations, pits (also known as
cells) with a volume of 37,500 ft3 (1060 m3) were dug, after which the
sand obtained from the excavation was used to construct walled
enclosures around the internal perimeter of the cells. Waste received from
Malé was deposited into the midst of the pit, which was topped off with a
layer of construction debris and then uniformly levelled with white sand.
Initially there was no segregation of the waste since it had to be disposed
immediately due to mass accumulation.
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Map7. 1
Source: EPA
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7.8 SEWAGE AND WASTEWATER
Like many small coastal communities of the world, Maldivians also
traditionally used the "bush or the beach" for human excreta disposal. A
designated area in the household backyard for shallow burial of faeces
(handas buri or gifili) and defecation along the beach (athirimathi) have
been common practice in the past.
These practices, especially the defecation in the gifili, are known to
damage the environment through contamination of groundwater aquifers
which were directly used (especially during dry period) for potable
purposes. One of the main concerns surrounding such sewage or excreta
disposal practices in the past was the morbidity and mortality from
diarrhoea, which still continues to be so. With the construction of
rainwater tanks both in Malé and the atolls, and the introduction of a
comprehensive sewerage scheme in Malé and intensive health education
on the use of oral rehydration, the situation has improved tremendously.
Deaths from diarrhoea have dropped considerably, although the morbidity
situation has not improved significantly. Serious epidemics of diarrhoea
occurred in 1978 (Cholera) and in 1982 (Shigella) claiming several lives.
The cholera epidemic affected 50% of the islands with more than 15000
cases reported and 200 deaths. Between 1992 and 1993, there has been a
reduction in the reported cases of diarrhoea in the country as a whole.
Although almost universal access to sanitation has been achieved in Malé
and a comprehensive sewerage system is in place, there are critical design
and long- term maintenance concerns that have contributed to rapid faecal
contamination of Malé groundwater aquifer. Malé Water and Sewerage
Company are working to rectify these problems and bring the system to
an acceptable level of performance.
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Pollutants reaching the water resources, especially groundwater aquifers
come from point sources and non-point sources. Point sources that mainly
include sewage disposal and discharges from sub-industrial activities have
contributed to contamination of groundwater aquifers in Malé and other
industrial or populated islands. A study carried out by MWSA in Malé
showed that petro-chemical pollution of the groundwater aquifer is quite
prominent in many areas of Malé. This pressure is due to vehicle washing
garages and engine repair and maintenance workshops scattered all over
Malé. The oil spillages in Malé had contaminated the ground water to the
point where tests conducted by MWSA showed the water at the area unfit
for any use (MWSA, 1995).
The scale and significance of water pollution problems caused by the
power stations and oil storage at other islands has yet not been assessed so
far. However, spillage had been observed in many oil handling areas
(such as in powerhouses) in other islands too.
The agricultural sector in the Maldives does not use a significant amount
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Thus groundwater and seawater
contamination from agricultural run-off is at present not a problem.
However, in the last few years there has been a marked increase in the
amount of fertilisers and pesticides used although it is not significant.
Issues facing coastal waters are mainly related to disposal of untreated
sewage and wastewater effluent. Of the seven islands provided with
central small bore sewerage systems, only three islands have secondary
treatment facility (i.e. septic tanks). The rest disposes raw sewage into the
coasts making coastal waters unsuitable for bathing or general use. In
Malé, the capital, sewage is disposed untreated into the near shore waters
via nine outfalls at six locations. The pollution load from these sewer
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outfalls probably exceeds the dilution capacity of the receiving waters.
The Malé sewers not only carry sewage but also different chemicals and
potentially harmful substances.
7.9 MAJOR POLICY RESPONSES AND INITIATIVES
Environmentally unsound practices in solid waste and sewage disposal
pose the most serious threat from tourism to the delicately balanced coral
reef ecosystem of the Maldives. Though solid waste is a cause of
environmental concern, at current levels it is more of an aesthetic
problem. In the past, waste and garbage which could not be burned was
dumped into the sea. This practice is now prohibited by law and waste
incinerators and crushers have to be used in all resorts. Sewage effluent is
discharged into the sea by the resorts. However, the discharges from
resorts are very small and the evidence on reef degradation from sewage
discharges is inconclusive. Some of the resorts are now turning to the
latest technology in sewage treatment using ultra violet radiation to
produce virtually pure water.
The Maldives has developed a very suitable form of tourism, appropriate
for the small island environment. The present form of tourism
development has not generated any serious environmental impacts. This
has been accomplished through appropriate policies, legislation and plans
and instituted mechanisms to apply strict standards and regulations.
However, the increasing number and magnitude of coastal modifications
on the islands, including reclamation, harbour dredging and beach
replenishment are serious environmental issues that need to be addressed
in the tourism sector. The management of solid wastes is identified as a
key environmental issue in the Second National Environment Action
Plan. In 1998, a study on The Solid Waste Management for Malé City in
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the Republic of Maldives was carried out with the assistance of Japan
International Co-operation Agency (JICA), to assess the solid waste
disposal problems in inhabited islands and resorts. The Ministry of Home
Affairs, Housing and Environment is currently in the process of
developing a national waste management strategy for the country. An
interagency technical committee was formed in April 2000 to advice the
Ministry on the national waste management strategy.
Under the South Regional Development Project, and with the guidance of
the technical committee, work is underway to develop a solid waste
disposal site in Hithadhoo. A similar site is being developed under the
Northern Regional Development Project in Kulhudhufushi. These waste
disposal sites are expected to become operational in 2002. Barging of
solid waste collected at the transfer station from Malé to Thilafushi has
proved practical and efficient. The experience gained from this operation
is planned to be utilised in all the inhabited islands of Malé Atoll in 2002.
Plans are underway to barge the solid waste collected from the inhabited
islands in Malé atoll to the Thilafushi landfill. When this project is
implemented, the problem of solid waste disposal in Malé Atoll would be
significantly improved. Maldives is party to the Basel Convention on the
Control of Trans boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal. The Environment Protection and Preservation Act of the
Maldives (Law 4/93) provide a statutory framework enabling the control
and regulation of the Trans boundary movement of hazardous waste
controlled under the Basel convention in the Maldives.
7.10 ISLAND VEGETATION
The image of a palm fringed sandy beach and lush tropical vegetation is
integral to the perception of, and satisfaction, with Maldives as a tourist
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designation. At present there is no requirement to survey and consider the
vegetation of an island as part of the planning approval process prior to
resort development. In the construction process trees and shrubs are cut
down and coastal vegetation is removed. Exotic ornamental and fast
growing species are imported to replace the vegetation removed and for
new resort gardens. The introduction of exotic species not only reduces
the ability of the island to recover to its natural state but also the exotic
species may overcome local ones directly or through the introduction of
pests.
There is also the matter of maintaining the natural perception of the island
for marketing purposes. Whilst the palm is the most important vegetation
feature on an island, there are local plants that have historic and cultural
importance and so have marketing value which imported exotics do not
have. Soil and fertilizer have largely been imported to improve the
growth prospects of exotic imports. These imports are very much on trial
and error basis and there is little doubt that many soils and a variety of
fertilizers have been tried. This process detracts from efforts to use local
vegetation which is already adapted to local conditions, and so should not
have to be sustained artificially. Imports may also introduce soil
associated pests and diseases for which local plants have limited
resistance.
7.11 CORAL REEFS
On tourist resort islands reef damage has been caused by scuba divers,
and by snorkelers and bathers walking out across the reef flat. The
greatest threat at present almost certainly arises from snorkelers and
bathers, from both inadvertent breakage and deliberate removal of coral
and coral fauna for souvenirs. A study at Kurumba Village has assessed
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the effects of snorkelers on the reef flat/crest at depths up to about 1.5 m.
Results indicate breakage of 18 percent of all Arcopora corals/month.
Hence most or all coral colonies of this genus stand to get broken each
year, suggesting a significant effect from snorkelers.
The present evidence on reef degradation from sewage in the Maldives is
inconclusive. The Environment Protocol reported that none of the 32
resorts surveyed in 1992, and none of the 70 dive base operators on 41
resorts, identified sewage as a problem causing reef deterioration. Direct
and indirect damage to reefs is also caused by divers and tourists
demands. However, the greatest impact to reefs in the Maldives has
originated from Coral mining for construction purposes.
7.12 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN MALDIVES
7.12.1.Policy and Planning
During the first decade of tourism development, there was no specifically
planned development; rather, tourism took place according to individual
private sector initiatives in locations that offered market advantages
principally related to the access opportunities offered by Hulhule Airport.
This essentially informal development managed to generate almost 3,500
bed spaces of international quality and the industry was achieving
enviable occupancy rates of up to 80 percent in the high season.
The first formal initiative to plan, in an integrated way, the future
development of the tourism industry in the Maldives, came when the
Department of Tourism and Foreign Investment commissioned Dan
group International in November 1980 to carry out a Maldives Tourism
Development Plan. This long-range (10 years), tourism development plan
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was prepared for the Maldives in May 1983 and some, but not all, of its
recommendations were considered feasible for implementation.
The tourism plan provided some ideas for development. However, to
date, most of the tourism planning and management has resulted from
government initiatives, based on its evaluation of the best forms and
standards of development. Many of the government’s present approaches
and standards have evolved through the monitoring of the earlier phases
of development to determine what is most suitable. Approaches and
standards have been refined and some abandoned based on the experience
gained from previous types of development. By government policy, the
resorts are located on uninhabited islands, in order to reduce any possible
socio-cultural impacts.
Also most islands are too small to contain both resorts and traditional
villages. These islands are owned by the government and it can allocate
them for resort use as needed. The resort developer receives a long-term
lease and pays an annual rent that is calculated individually for each
island. The resorts must supply their own infrastructure of electric power,
water supply, sewage and solid waste disposal, boat dock and recreation
facilities. They must also provide housing and related facilities for the
resort employees. The families of the resort employees remain on their
home islands, often some distance away. The government policy has been
to expand tourism for its economic benefits, but in a systematic manner
of staged development. In the late 1980s, Kaafu Atoll was considered
saturated with resort development. This decision was made within the
framework of maintaining high environmental standards for the existing
resorts, and retaining sufficient land for village and urban expansion and
recreation parks.
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All new resort development was then programmed to take place in Alif
atoll, which is accessible by sea and air from the international airport. In
parallel the government policy turned to encourage expansion and
upgrading of existing resorts to higher standards, including meeting
present environmental quality standards. This upgrading was considered
necessary to maintain the viability and competitiveness of these resorts
and to maintain all tourism development at a reasonably high level,
catering to quality tourist markets. As an inducement to achieve these
objectives, resort leases were extended from 10 to 21 years and much of
this upgrading has been accomplished.
The Third National Development Plan (1991-1993) (Ministry of
Planning, Human Resources and Environment) recommended the
development of a ten-year zoning plan (1991-2000). Under strategies and
policies to achieve the main objectives of tourism development, the NDP
(1991-1993) included a proposal to assess environmental impacts of
resort developments and operations, and further strengthen measures
taken to protect and conserve the environment and natural setting for
tourism, and to adopt remedial measures on environmental degradation.
The issues that are examined in the new Tourism Master Plan draft
include new markets, priority markets, air travel and other transportation
issues, tourism infrastructure development, legal aspects, human resource
development, gender situation, socio-cultural aspects and environmental
impacts.
7.13 NATIONAL LEGISLATION
The Department of Tourism and Foreign Investment was organized in
1978 and made responsible for supervision, co-ordination and
maintaining standards of tourist services in the country. To develop and
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regulate tourism, and simultaneously to strengthen the institutional
framework for administering and monitoring the industry, this department
was renamed the Department of Tourism in November 1982 and made
solely responsible for tourism management. In 1984, the Tourism
Advisory Board was established as a consultative body affiliated to the
tourism authority.
The tourism sector was given elevated status in 1988 with the
establishment of the Ministry of Tourism, according to the designating
law 3/68 J under 1/69 J as at 1993, to provide ways to develop the
tourism industry in the Maldives, to plan methods of income generation
through tourism, to provide guidelines, and to administer the industry.
The Ministry of Planning and Environment was established in 1988. This
Ministry is responsible for the formulation of policies on environment,
environmental guidance to other development sectors, the implementation
of environmental impact assessment and the designation of protected
areas.
7.14 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
The Environmental Protection and Preservation Act of Maldives (4/93)
provided the basic framework for the Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) process in the Maldives and under Article 5 (1) of the Act, an
impact assessment study shall be submitted to the Ministry of Planning,
Human Resources and Environment (MPHRE) before implementing any
activity that may have an impact on the environment. According to the
EIA guidelines issued by MPHRE all new resort developments require an
EIA study before approval for development can be made.
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7.15 ARCHITECTURAL AND DESIGN CONTROLS
The design of resort buildings is controlled so that they are well
integrated into the island environment, take advantage of the tropical
climate and use local building materials to the extent possible, such as
thatch roofs. Previously many buildings were constructed from coral
mined from the reefs. However, the use of coral is now restricted and use
of imported materials is now encouraged, although these are expensive by
local standards. Coral and sand mining from resorts and their house reefs
is strictly prohibited. Hard engineering solutions for dynamic coastlines
are discouraged and construction of solid jetties and groins are controlled.
Design of boat piers and jetties should be in such a way that they do not
obstruct the original flow of currents or disrupt the wave climate within
the lagoon.
7.16 WASTE DISPOSAL
According to the regulations issued by the Ministry of Tourism, garbage
from tourist resorts should be disposed of in a manner that would not
cause any damage to the environment. All garbage disposed into the sea
should be done as far away into the sea as necessary in order to ensure
that it does not get washed onto any islands with the current. Tourist
resorts are required to have incinerators and compactors adequate in size
to burn all flammable materials and crush all the cans respectively. Those
who lack these facilities are not allowed to operate. Plastic or polythene
bags should not be thrown into the sea and such material should be burnt.
Those who contravene these regulations are subject to fines and penalties.
Two airlines have joined in the effort to keep Maldives clean by
arranging for waste to be carried back to Europe. Under this program all
tourists who fly in to the Maldives in these airlines are given a bag and
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asked to bring to the airport, all the waste they produce during their stay
in the Maldives when they depart. The airlines carry the waste to the
original destination for recycling free of charge.
Under sewage and excreta disposal the tourism book of regulation
specifies that the sewage system should be prepared such that pollution of
water supplies, beaches and other areas are prevented; nuisance, ugly
sights, and unpleasant orders do not occur, human wastes do not come
into contact with people, animal and food; and breeding of flies and
mosquitoes will be prevented.
7.17 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
To protect and preserve marine biodiversity a number of measures have
been prescribed. Spear, poison and dynamite fishing are strictly
prohibited. Net and trap fishing are controlled and confined to certain
areas. Removal of shells, juvenile lobsters and lobsters ready to lay eggs
are strictly prohibited. The catching of turtles is strictly prohibited and
trade in all turtle products is banned. The commercial exploitation and
export of a number of other species is also banned. Resort operators also
voluntarily prohibit the catching of reef fish from the house reef or tourist
resorts. Fifteen important dive sites have been declared as protected areas
in 1994, where fishing, anchoring, removal of coral and other destructive
activities are prohibited.
The Ministry of Tourism recognizes the importance of vegetation in
maintaining the natural beauty of the islands and there are a number of
regulations which aim to secure this resource. These include a limit of 20
percent of the islands for building, the requirement that no buildings be
put up that disrupt the natural facade of the island, that there be a
minimum setback limit of 5 meters from the vegetation line of the island,
and that no buildings should appear above the tree tops.
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7.18 SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM
Socially tourism has a great influence on the host societies. Tourism can
be both a source of international amity, peace and understanding and a
destroyer. Tourism might cause a gradual change in a society’s values,
beliefs and cultural practices. Local residents feel this impact more
heavily. By observing the tourists, local people might change their life
style (dressing, eating, entertainment and recreational activities, and so
forth). While this influence may be interpreted positively as an increase in
the standard of living, it may also be considered negatively as an
indication of acculturation (Brunt and Courtney, 1999, Dogan 1987).
Tourism can contribute to the revitalisation of arts, crafts and local
culture and to the realisation of cultural identity and heritage. In order to
attract more tourists, architectural and historical sites are restored and
protected (Inskeep, 1991; Liu and Var, 1986). Moreover, many people of
different cultures come together by means of tourism, facilitating the
exchange of cultures (Brayley et al, 1990).
In addition to its cultural impacts, tourism is perceived to contribute to
changes in value systems, individual behaviour, family relations,
collective lifestyle, moral conduct and community organisations (Ap and
Crompton, 1998). It also modifies internal structure of the community by
dividing it into those who have and have not a relationship with tourism
or tourists (Brunt and Courtney, 1999). Intense immigration from
different cultures of people brings about social conflict in the area.
Generally, impacts of tourism on women are perceived positively such as
more freedom, more opportunities to work, increase self-worked and
respect, better education, higher standards of living with higher family
income. However, some argue that tourism distracts family structure and
203
values, and also leads to increase in divorce rates and prostitution (Gee et
al, 1997).
Tourism may lead to a decline in moral values; invokes use of alcohol
and drugs; increases crime rates and tension in the community (Liu and
Var, 1986; Milman and Pizam, 1988). Moreover, with the development of
tourism, human relations are commercialised while the non-economic
relations begin to lose their importance in the community (Dogan, 1989).
In relatively small tourism resort towns, increased population and crowd
especially in summer seasons cause noise, pollution and congestion. This
limits the use of public areas such as parks, gardens and beaches as well
as of local services by the residents, which sometimes result in negative
attitudes towards tourists (Ross, 1992).
Social contacts between tourists and local people may result in mutual
appreciation, understanding, tolerance, awareness, learning, family
bonding respect, and liking. Residents are educated about the outside
world without leaving their homes, while their visitors significantly learn
about a distinctive culture. Local communities are benefited through
contribution by tourism to the improvement of the social infrastructure
like schools, libraries, health care institutions, internet cafes, and so on.
Besides, if local culture is the base for attracting tourists to the region, it
helps to preserve the local traditions and handicrafts which maybe were
on the link of the extinction.
Tourism has the power to affect cultural change. Successful development
of a resource can lead to numerous negative impacts. Among these are
overdevelopment, assimilation, conflict, and artificial reconstruction.
While presenting a culture to tourists may help preserve the culture, it can
also dilute or even destroy it. The point is to promote tourism in the
204
region so that it would both give incomes and create respect for the local
tradition and culture.
There are also both negative and positive impacts of tourism on the local
ecology. Tourism often grows into mass-tourism. It leads to the over
consumption, pollution, and lack of resources. However, from the
ecological point of view tourism is often more acceptable and preferable
than any other industrial production, as it is environmentally friendlier.
The problem is that it is not easy to change the traditional way of life of
the local communities. It often creates pseudo conflicts. Undoubtedly in
some regions or countries the alternative industries are even more
harmful to the environment than tourism.
7.19 SOCIO-CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
ASSESSMENT OF THE STUDY AREA
Socio-cultural and Environmental Impact Assessment of the study were
carried out by interviewing the different people on the basis of different
categories as Destination of tourists (International, National and Local
tourists), Students (O’ Level, A’ Level, Degree, Post Graduate and Above
Post Graduate) and Occupation (Government Service, Self Employed,
Professional, Retired, and Unemployed). Different variables were
selected to analyse the magnitude of positive and negative impacts of
tourism on the study area. The respondents’ impacts assessment was
graded into four classes: high, medium, low and nil and the same was
recorded. ANOVA analysis has been used to bring out the significant
difference between the variables. The entire study is based on 5%
significance level. The responses obtained from the survey regarding the
positive impacts of tourism were summarised in Table No. 7.2 and
figure 7.3
205
7.19.1.Positive impacts of tourism
The respondents do have a strong perception regarding positive Socio-
cultural and environmental impacts of tourism (table 7.2) The majority of
respondents acknowledged positive impacts such as, a ‘clean’ industry
image (56%), improvement of the area’s appearance (35%), preservation
of historical buildings and monuments (12%), promotion of cultural
exchange (17%), improvement in understanding of different communities
(37%), greater tolerance of social differences (33%) and increase in the
availability of recreation facilities and opportunities (14%).
ANOVA test has been used to measure the variability of responses of
different categories of people. It has been applied to measure the
variability of both positive as well as negative variables to measure the
difference in responses of people regarding the Environmental Impact
Assessment of Tourism
Table:7.1: Percentage of respondents showing positive Socio-cultural
and Environmental impacts of Study Area.
S.
No.
Variables High
%
Medium
%
Low
%
Nil
%
1 A clean industry image 56 40 4 0
2 Improvement of the area's appearance 35 43 22 0
3 preservation of historical buildings
and monuments
12 26 55 7
4 Promotes cultural exchange 17 43 37 3
5 Improves understanding of different
communities
37 36 23 4
6 Greater tolerance of social differences 33 20 41 6
7 Increases the availability of recreation
facilities and opportunities
14 22 49 15
206
Figure7.3
Table:7.2 Comparison of Positive Responses Based on Destination of
Tourists.
Sum of
Squares
Df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups 400.000 2 200.000 4.268* .017
Within
Groups 4358.000 93 46.860
Total 4758.000 95
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level
The table No. 7.3 reveals that the responses of tourists of different
destinations regarding the positive impact of tourism on environment and
Socio-cultural status of the study area are statistically significant at five
per cent level of significance.
0102030405060
Veriables
Maldives:Percentage of Respondents Showing Positive
Socio-Cultural and Environmental Impacts
High %
Medium %
Low %
Nil %
207
Table:7.3 Multiple Comparison of Positive Response Based on
Destination of Tourists
(I) Tourist
Destination Wise
(J) Tourist
Destination Wise
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Std.
Error
Sig.
International National -5.000* 1.711 .004
Local -2.500 1.711 .147
National International 5.000* 1.711 .004
Local 2.500 1.711 .147
Local International 2.500 1.711 .147
National -2.500 1.711 .147
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level
The multiple comparison test (table No. 7.4) reveal that responses of
international tourists about the positive impacts of tourism on
environment and Socio-cultural profile of Maldives is significantly
different from national tourists at Five per cent level of significance.
While as the difference prevails in responses of about the impact among
other groups but is not statistically significant.
Table:7.4 Comparison of Positive Responses Based on Education.
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups 560.000 4 140.000 4.932* .001
Within
Groups 4400.000 155 28.387
Total 4960.000 159
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level
208
The Comparison of Positive Responses of positive impacts of tourism on
Based on Education reveals that the responses of Students of different
standards (O’ Level, A’ Level, Degree, Post Graduate and Above Post
Graduate) is statistically significant at 1 per cent level of significance.
Table:7.5 Multiple Comparison of Positive Response Based on
Education.
(I) Tourist
Destination Wise
(J) Tourist
Destination Wise
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
Std. Error Sig.
O' Level
A' Level 2.500 1.332 .062
Degree 2.500 1.332 .062
P. G. 5.000* 1.332 .000
Above P. G. 5.000* 1.332 .000
A' Level
O' Level -2.500 1.332 .062
Degree .000 1.332 1.000
P. G. 2.500 1.332 .062
Above P. G. 2.500 1.332 .062
Degree
O' Level -2.500 1.332 .062
A' Level .000 1.332 1.000
P. G. 2.500 1.332 .062
Above P. G. 2.500 1.332 .062
P. G.
O' Level -5.000* 1.332 .000
A' Level -2.500 1.332 .062
Degree -2.500 1.332 .062
Above P. G. .000 1.332 1.000
Above P. G.
O' Level -5.000* 1.332 .000
A' Level -2.500 1.332 .062
Degree -2.500 1.332 .062
P. G. .000 1.332 1.000
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level
209
The multiple comparison tests in 4.6 reveal the difference of response of
students regarding the Socio-cultural and environmental impact of
tourism. It is found that the response of O’ Level Students is statistically
significant from the students of Post-Graduation and the students of
Above Post-Graduation at five per cent level of significance while as the
responses of other students is not statistically significant from each other.
Table:7.6 Comparison of Positive Responses Based on Occupation
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups 560.000 4 140.000 4.717* .001
Within Groups 4600.000 155 29.677
Total 5160.000 159
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
The Comparison of Positive Responses Based on Occupation reveals that
their response regarding the Socio-cultural and environmental impact of
tourism is statistically significant at Five per cent level of significance.
210
Table:7.7 Multiple Comparison of Positive Response Based on
Occupation.
(I)
Occupation
Wise
(J)
Occupation
Wise
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Std.
Error
Sig.
Self Employed
Professional .000 1.362 1.000
Retired 2.500 1.362 .068
Unemployed 2.500 1.362 .068
Govt. service -2.500 1.362 .068
Professional
Self
Employed .000 1.362 1.000
Retired 2.500 1.362 .068
Unemployed 2.500 1.362 .068
Govt. service -2.500 1.362 .068
Retired
Self
Employed -2.500 1.362 .068
Professional -2.500 1.362 .068
Unemployed .000 1.362 1.000
Govt. service -5.000* 1.362 .000
Unemployed
Self
Employed -2.500 1.362 .068
Professional -2.500 1.362 .068
Retired .000 1.362 1.000
Govt. service -5.000* 1.362 .000
Govt. service
Self
Employed 2.500 1.362 .068
Professional 2.500 1.362 .068
Retired 5.000* 1.362 .000
Unemployed 5.000* 1.362 .000
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
211
The multiple comparison tests in 7.8 reveal the difference of response of
people of different occupations regarding the positive socio-cultural and
environmental impact of tourism. It is found that the response of people
doing government service is statistically different from retired and
unemployed people at Five percent level of significance. While as the
difference amount other groups is not statistically significant at same
significance level.
7.19.2 Negative Economic Impacts
It is evident from table 7.9 that major Socio-cultural and environmental
impacts noted in the table are noise pollution, Destruction of the
environment, Drugs, Overcrowding, Unwanted life style changes, Loss
of open space, Feeling of loss of control over community's future, new
building styles fail to fit community Political issues. Many of these issues
are found to be prevalent as indicated by the number of respondents
against them.
212
Table:7. 8 Percentage of respondents showing Negative Socio-cultural
and Environmental impacts of Study Area.
S.
No.
Variables High
%
Medium
%
Low
%
Nil
%
1 Air Population 4 15 57 24
2 Water Population 1 10 53 36
3 Noise Population 57 23 16 4
4 Destruction of the environment (Flora
and fauna, etc.)
27 28 22 23
5 Crime 9 37 41 13
6 Conflict between host and guest 3 6 71 20
7 Drugs 19 24 28 29
8 Prostitution 7 23 36 34
9 Smuggling 0 4 27 69
10 Increased drinking alcoholism 1 4 66 29
11 Gambling 11 4 25 60
12 Child labour 5 2 0 93
13 Over crowding 88 11 1 0
14 Unwanted life style changes 83 15 2 0
15 Loss of open space 98 2 0 0
16 Feeling of loss of control over
community's future (caused by
outsider development)
54 24 16 6
17 New building styles fail to fit
community
67 29 3 1
18 Political issues 100 0 0 0
213
Figure: 7.4
Table:7.9 Comparison of Negative Responses Based on Tourist
Destination
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups 900.000 2 450.000 4.643* .011
Within
Groups 20646.000 213 96.930
Total 21546.000 215
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
The table No. 7.10 reveals that the responses of tourists of different
destinations regarding the negative impacts of tourism on socio-cultural
and environment of Maldives are statistically significant at Five percent
level of significance.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120A
ir P
op
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Re
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Percentage of respondents showing Negative Socio-cultural and
Environmental impacts
High
Medium
Low
Nil
214
Table:7.10 Multiple Comparison of Negative Response Based on Tourist
Destination
(I) Tourist
Destination Wise
(J) Tourist
Destination Wise
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
Std. Error Sig.
International National -5.000* 1.641 .003
Local -2.500 1.641 .129
National International 5.000* 1.641 .003
Local 2.500 1.641 .129
Local International 2.500 1.641 .129
National -2.500 1.641 .129
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
The multiple comparison tests in 7.11 reveal the difference of response of
tourists regarding the negative impacts of tourism on socio-cultural and
environment of different destination. It is found that the response of
international tourists is statistically significant from national tourists at
five percent level of significance while as the responses of other tourists
differ from each other but is not statistically significant.
Table:7.11 Comparison of Negative Responses Based on Education
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups 1260.000 4 315.000 7.533* .000
Within
Groups 14844.000 355 41.814
Total 16104.000 359
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
215
The Comparison of Negative Responses of Students of different
standards (O’ Level, A’ Level, Degree, Post Graduate and Above Post
Graduate) the negative impacts of tourism on socio-cultural and
environment of the study area is statistically significant at Five percent
level of significance.
Table:7.12 Multiple Comparison of Negative Response Based on
Education.
(I) Education
Wise
(J) Education
Wise
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error Sig.
O' Level
A' Level 2.500* 1.078 .021
Degree 2.500* 1.078 .021
P. G. 5.000* 1.078 .000
Above P. G. 5.000* 1.078 .000
A' Level
O' Level -2.500* 1.078 .021
Degree .000 1.078 1.000
P. G. 2.500* 1.078 .021
Above P. G. 2.500* 1.078 .021
Degree
O' Level -2.500* 1.078 .021
A' Level .000 1.078 1.000
P. G. 2.500* 1.078 .021
Above P. G. 2.500* 1.078 .021
P. G.
O' Level -5.000* 1.078 .000
A' Level -2.500* 1.078 .021
Degree -2.500* 1.078 .021
Above P. G. .000 1.078 1.000
Above P. G.
O' Level -5.000* 1.078 .000
A' Level -2.500* 1.078 .021
Degree -2.500* 1.078 .021
P. G. .000 1.078 1.000
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
216
The multiple comparison tests in 7.13 reveal the difference of response of
students regarding the negative impacts of tourism on socio-cultural and
environment. It is found that the response of O’ Level Students is
statistically significant from the students of all other classes (A’ Level,
Degree, Post Graduate and Above Post Graduate). The response of the
students of A’ Level and Degree students are not significant at Five per
cent level of significance. Similarly the responses of the students of Post
Graduate and Above Post Graduate are not significant at Five per cent
level of significance.
Table:7.13 Comparison of Negative Response Based on Occupation
Sum of
Squares
df Mean
Square
F Sig.
Between
Groups 1260.000 4 315.000 7.074* .000
Within
Groups 15808.000 355 44.530
Total 17068.000 359
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
The Comparison of Positive Responses Based on Occupation shown in
Table No. 7.14 reveals that their response regarding the negative impacts
of tourism on socio-cultural and environment are statistically significant
at Five percent level of significance.
217
Table:7.14 Multiple Comparison of Negative Response Based on
Occupation
(I)
Occupation
Wise
(J) Occupation
Wise
Mean
Difference (I-J)
Std. Error Sig.
Self
Employed
Professional .000 1.112 1.000
Retired 2.500* 1.112 .025
Unemployed 2.500* 1.112 .025
Govt. service -2.500* 1.112 .025
Professional
Self Employed .000 1.112 1.000
Retired 2.500* 1.112 .025
Unemployed 2.500* 1.112 .025
Govt. service -2.500* 1.112 .025
Retired
Self Employed -2.500* 1.112 .025
Professional -2.500* 1.112 .025
Unemployed .000 1.112 1.000
Govt. service -5.000* 1.112 .000
Unemployed
Self Employed -2.500* 1.112 .025
Professional -2.500* 1.112 .025
Retired .000 1.112 1.000
Govt. service -5.000* 1.112 .000
Govt. service
Self Employed 2.500* 1.112 .025
Professional 2.500* 1.112 .025
Retired 5.000* 1.112 .000
Unemployed 5.000* 1.112 .000
*Difference is Significant at Five Per cent Level.
The multiple comparison tests in 7.15 reveal the difference of response of
people of different occupations regarding the negative impacts of tourism
218
on socio-cultural and environment. It is found that the responses of
people belonging to self-employed category are not significantly different
from professionals. Similarly the responses of retired and unemployed
persons are not significant at Five per cent level of significance. In case
of the responses of Government employee is significant from all other
groups of occupation.
7.20 CONCLUSION
Tourism in the Maldives began in 1972 and it then evokes the image of a
lost paradise. The tourism industry of the Maldives is dependent entirely
on environmental quality and since it established itself in the tourism
market and it has maintained its strong position in a rapidly growing
market. A few critics in the 1980s proclaimed that environmental
pollution had begun to rear its ugly head in the Maldives. However, the
natural resources of the Maldives are still in a sufficiently pristine state
and of very high aesthetic quality and environmental concerns are few.
Environmentally unsound practices in solid waste and sewage disposal
pose the most serious threat from tourism to the delicately balanced coral
reef ecosystem of the Maldives. Though solid waste is a cause of
environmental concern, at current level it is more of an aesthetic problem.
In the past the portion of waste and garbage which could not be burned
was dumped into the sea. This practice is now prohibited by law and
waste incinerators and crushers have to be used in all resorts. Sewage
effluent is discharged into the sea by the resorts. However, their
discharges from resorts are very small and the evidence on reef
degradation from sewage discharges is inconclusive. Some of the resorts
are turning to the latest technology in sewage treatment using UV
radiation to produce virtually pure water.
219
The Maldives has developed a very suitable form of tourism, appropriate
for the small island environment. The present form of tourism
development has not generated any serious environmental impacts. This
has been accomplished through careful management. The government has
developed appropriate policies, legislation and plans and instituted
mechanisms to apply strict standards and regulations.
