Chapter 8: The Presidency...mal powers of the presidency, view the Democracy in Action Chapter 8 video lesson: The Presidency Chapter Overview Visit the United States Government: Democracy

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

E-Mailing an Agency Thepresident is responsible for administration of hundreds of government agencies that affect people’s lives in a direct way. From this unit select a federal agency.Find out what its main services are. Then survey people in your community to determine how well theagency serves people. Send theresults of your survey to thefederal agency via e-mail.

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▲ The Lincoln Memorial

The White HouseTake a virtual tour of the White House in Washington,

D.C., and see how the executive branch works.

Glencoe’s Democracy in Action Video Program

The White House is the site of the president’soffice, the residence of theFirst Family, the place wheremany official social gatheringsare held, and a symbol of thepresidency. The Democracyin Action video program “TheWhite House” provides an in-side view of the White Houseand the architecturalchanges made throughoutits history.

Hands-On ActivityUse library or Internet resources to find

information about the homes of past presidents.Use multimedia tools or software to create amultimedia presentation about historical residences. Incorporate images you find on

the Internet. Include information about architectural styles,dates of construction or renovation, unique features, and present condition and use.

� � � � � � � �

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Your Chief Executive In 1971, 18-year-oldswere granted the right to vote nationwide. If youare not already eligible to vote for president, yousoon will be. This chapter presents some of the in-formal but traditional requirements for this power-ful office and explains how to become involved inthe selection process.

To learn more about the formal and infor-mal powers of the presidency, view the

Democracy in Action Chapter 8 video lesson:

The Presidency

Chapter Overview Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com and clickon Chapter 8—Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

Avice president, stepping into a president’srole, faces a daunting assignment. Presi-dent Truman, assuming the office whenFranklin Roosevelt died, told the press:

“I don’t know whether you fellows ever hada load of hay fall on you, but when theytold me yesterday what happened, I feltlike the moon, the stars and all the planetshad fallen on me.”—Harry S Truman, 1945

The office of the president has been develop-ing for more than 200 years. Just as the nation hasgrown during that time, the powers of the execu-tive branch have also grown.

Duties of the President The constitutional duties of the nation’s firstpresident, George Washington, and those of

a modern president are much the same. However,presidents today have enormous power and respon-sibility. For example, the Constitution makes thepresident the commander in chief of the nation’sarmed forces. In Washington’s administration thismeant calling out a militia of 15,000 volunteersand getting on a horse and leading the troops tocrush a rebellion of whiskey distillers. Today thepresident oversees a military divided into fourmajor units, makes decisions of how to deploytroops stationed throughout the world, andmanages a defense budget of almost $400 billion.

In addition to commanding the military, theconstitution gives the president responsibility toappoint—with Senate consent—heads of execu-tive departments, federal court judges, and othertop officials. In conducting foreign policy, thepresident makes treaties with the advice andconsent of the Senate, meets with heads of state,hosts foreign officials, and appoints ambas-sadors to represent the United States in othercountries.

President and Vice PresidentS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Bush Fills InWASHINGTON, D.C., MARCH 30, 1981

Vice President George

H.W. Bush rushed

back to Washington from

Texas this evening after

the shooting of President

Ronald Reagan. Bush may

be required to assume the

responsibilities of the pres-

idency, under the terms of

the Twenty-fifth Amend-

ment, if Reagan’s wounds

prevent him from per-

forming the duties of office. Bush will fill in for the

president at tomorrow’s functions, including a

meeting with leaders of Congress and lunch with the

prime minister of the Netherlands. However, no

steps have been taken to officially designate him act-

ing president. Reagan is reported to be alert and

should be able to make decisions tomorrow.

Vice President Bush

CHAPTER 8: THE PRESIDENCY 213

Reader’s Guide

Key Termscompensation, presidential succession

Find Out■ What qualifications for the office of president

do you think are most necessary for carryingout the duties of the office?

■ What are the constitutional provisions for fillingthe executive office if the president is unableto perform those duties?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy Why are personal qualitiesof candidates for president more demanding thanthe constitutional qualifications?

President George W. Bush▲

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The most important duty of the president maybe to ensure that all the laws of the United Statesare “faithfully executed.” A vast bureaucracy assiststhe president in this task. A president may pardonpeople convicted of federal crimes, except in casesof impeachment, or reduce a person’s jail sentenceor fine.

The president has lawmaking power. Each yearthe president delivers a State of the Union messageto Congress, in addition to other messages fromtime to time. Today Congress expects a presidentto take some leadership in proposing policy changes.

President’s Term and SalaryOriginally, the Constitution did not specifyhow many four-year terms a president may

serve. George Washington set a long-held prece-dent when he served for eight years and refused torun for a third term. However, in 1940 and 1944,Franklin D. Roosevelt broke this tradition when heran for a third and a fourth term.

The Twenty-second Amendment Reactionto Roosevelt’s unprecedented four terms in officeand concern over too much executive power ledCongress to propose and the states to ratify the Twenty-second Amendment in 1951.1 Theamendment secured the traditional presidentiallimitation of two terms, while allowing a vice

president who takes over the presidency and servestwo years or less of the former president’s term toserve two additional terms. Thus, it is possible fora president to serve up to 10 years.

Salary and Benefits The ConstitutionalConvention determined that presidents should receive compensation. The Constitution did notspecify the amount of compensation, or salary,but left the matter for Congress to determine.Between 1969 and 2001, the president received$200,000 a year in taxable salary and $50,000 a yearfor expenses connected with official duties. In1999, Congress raised the president’s salary to$400,000, starting with the new president in 2001.The Executive Office of the President also providesa nontaxable travel allowance of up to $100,000 ayear. Congress cannot increase or decrease thesalary during a president’s term.

Other benefits (some that are necessary for se-curity reasons) are provided to the president. Forexample, Air Force One, a specially equipped jet, aswell as other planes, helicopters, and limousinesare made available to the president and close assis-tants.

Presidents receive free medical, dental, andhealth care. They live in the White House, a 132-room

214 CHAPTER 8: THE PRESIDENCY

Executive Benefits The president usuallyflies long distances in Air Force One. Atother times, the Chief Executive travels in an official car, a private airplane, or a U.S.Navy ship. Why does the Secret Servicediscourage the president’s use of publictransportation?

A Traveling President

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

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mansion with a swimming pool, bowling alley,private movie theater, and tennis courts. TheWhite House domestic staff does the cooking,shopping, and cleaning for the president’s family.

The government pays the expenses of operat-ing the White House. Items the government doesnot pay for, however, can amount to thousands ofdollars each month. The cost of all personal enter-tainment, such as receptions and dinners not di-rectly related to government business, is paid bythe president.

When presidents retire, they receive a lifetimepension, now $148,400 a year. They also have freeoffice space, free mailing services, and up to$96,000 a year for office help. When presidents die,their spouses are eligible for a pension of $20,000 ayear. While these benefits offer financial security tothe president and his family, money is not the rea-son that people seek the presidency.

Presidential QualificationsThe Constitution sets basic qualificationsfor president. Other qualifications reflect

personal qualities expected of presidents. MostAmericans over the age of 35 can meet the consti-tutional requirements for the presidency. Very fewcan meet the informal requirements.

Constitutional Requirements In Article II,Section 1, the Constitution defines the formal re-quirements for the office of president.1 The presi-dent must be: (l) a natural-born citizen of theUnited States; (2) at least 35 years old; and (3) aresident of the United States for at least 14 yearsbefore taking office. The same requirements applyto the vice president.

Government Experience Many other quali-ties are necessary for a person to have a real chanceof becoming president. Experience in governmentis an unwritten but important qualification. Since1868, for example, only five major-party candi-dates for the presidency had no previous politicalexperience, with Dwight D. Eisenhower as themost recent example. Since 1900, candidates whohave served as United States senators or as stategovernors have most often won the presidentialnomination. For example, Bill Clinton had servedas governor of Arkansas and George W. Bush asgovernor of Texas. A political career provides theopportunity to form political alliances necessary toobtain a party’s nomination as well as the namerecognition necessary to win votes.


Eugene M. Lang

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference In 1996 Eugene Lang receivedthe nation’s highest civilianhonor—the Presidential Medal

of Freedom. President Clintonpresented the award to Lang and 10 other Americans for theiroutstanding contributions.

Lang received the award forfulfilling dreams. In 1981 Langwent back to his elementaryschool in East Harlem for a visit.He made the sixth-grade studentsat the school a promise: if theyfinished high school, he would

pay for their collegeeducations. The motivation worked.

Seventy-five percent of the classgraduated or received their equiv-alency certificates.

Lang started the “I Have aDream” Foundation in 1986. It is a program that provides moneyto underprivileged children to attend college. The program alsooffers mentoring and tutoring opportunities for students inneed. Today the “I Have aDream” program has spread to59 cities and includes more than15,000 students whose dreamsof going to college will become areality, thanks to Eugene Lang’scontributions.


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Importance of Money Running for the pres-idency demands large amounts of money fromsupporters and also requires using one’s own per-sonal finances. Paying for television time, hiringcampaign staff and consultants, and sending outmailings add up to tens of millions of dollars. TheBipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2000 is an ef-fort to reform campaign fund raising. This act ad-justs limits on the amount of money candidatesmay receive from individual donors and the man-ner in which political parties may spend fundsduring the election. Candidates may spend up to$33.78 million in the primaries and an additional$67.56 million in the general election. If the candi-dates spend more than this, they lose millions ofdollars in federal matching funds. Campaign fi-nance reform is an ongoing issue being debated inCongress and reviewed by the Supreme Court.

Political Beliefs Because extremely liberal orconservative candidates have little chance of beingelected, the major parties usually choose presiden-

tial candidates who hold moderate positions onmost issues. Exceptions do, however, sometimesoccur. In 1964 Barry Goldwater, a very conserva-tive Republican, became his party’s presidentialcandidate. In 1972 a very liberal Democrat, GeorgeMcGovern, won the nomination. Both of thesecandidates were soundly defeated in the generalelection. In the 2000 campaign both candidates,Al Gore and George W. Bush, adopted moderatepositions on major issues.

Personal Characteristics What personalcharacteristics does a person need to become pres-ident? Most presidents have come from northernEuropean family backgrounds. A few have beenfrom poor families (Abraham Lincoln and Harry STruman, for example) and a few from wealthy ones(both Theodore and Franklin Roosevelt and JohnF. Kennedy). Most presidents, however, have comefrom middle-class backgrounds.

Presidents generally have been white, married,Protestant, financially successful men. No womannor any person of African, Hispanic, or Asian an-cestry has yet been president or vice president. In1960 John F. Kennedy became the first RomanCatholic to win the office. Geraldine Ferraro, De-mocratic candidate for vice president in 1984, wasthe first woman nominated by a major party forhigh office. Jesse Jackson, an African American, wonthe support of many delegates at the 1988 Democ-ratic convention. Another African American, ColinPowell, former general and member of the Clintonand Bush administrations, has been sought as acandidate by both major parties in recent elections.

Personal Growth Holding presidential officetends to underscore a person’s inner personalstrengths and weaknesses. President Harry S Tru-man, who had succeeded to the presidency on thedeath of Franklin Roosevelt, explained the loneli-ness of the office:


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 8—StudentWeb Activities for an activity about the presidentand vice president.

GOVERNMENT

Presidential Summer Camp If youcan’t take the heat . . . head for Camp David!The summer retreat offers presidents andspecial dignitaries a place to relax andescape the summer heat. Franklin D.Roosevelt was the first president to stay inthis camp located in the mountains ofMaryland. The public is not allowed on thegrounds, which are run by the navy andprotected by the marines. Its attractions include a pool, a driving range, tennis courts,a gym, and guest cabins.Camp David has been the site of such historic events as the planning of the Normandy invasion and discussions of the Bay of Pigs invasion.

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“The presidency of the United States carrieswith it a responsibility so personal as to bewithout parallel. . . . No one can make decisions for him. . . . Even those closest tohim . . . never know all the reasons why hedoes certain things and why he comes tocertain conclusions. To be President of theUnited States is to be lonely, very lonely attimes of great decisions.”—Harry S Truman

Truman, however, grew into the office andtook responsibility for the difficult decisions. Onemotto on his White House desk read: “The BuckStops Here.”

Presidential Succession Eight presidents have died in office—bulletsstruck down four; four died of natural caus-

es. After John F. Kennedy was killed in 1963, thecountry realized that the rules for presidentialsuccession the Constitution established were in-adequate.1 The nation needed a new set of rules todetermine who would fill the president’s office incase of a vacancy.

Order of Succession Ratified in 1967, theTwenty-fifth Amendment established the order ofsuccession to the presidency and spelled out whathappens when the vice presidency becomes vacant:

“Section 1. In case of the removal of thePresident from office or of his death or res-ignation, the Vice President shall becomePresident.

Section 2. Whenever there is a vacancy inthe office of the Vice President, the Presidentshall nominate a Vice President who shalltake office upon confirmation by a majorityvote of both Houses of Congress.”—Twenty-fifth Amendment, 1967

The amendment was first applied in 1973 afterSpiro Agnew resigned as Richard Nixon’s vice pres-ident. President Nixon then nominated Gerald

Ford as vice president, and Congress approved thenomination. Less than a year later, when PresidentNixon resigned from office, Vice President Fordbecame president. Ford then nominated NelsonRockefeller, former governor of New York, as vicepresident, and Congress again approved the nom-ination. This process marked the only time inUnited States history that both the president andvice president were not elected to these offices.

What would happen if the offices of presidentand vice president both became vacant at the sametime? The Succession Act of 1947 established theorder of presidential succession. According to this



Critical Thinking The Succession Act of 1947 established the order of succession if the offices of president and vice president were vacant at the same time. What officer would be next in line if these two top executive offices were vacant at the same time?

Vice President

Speaker of the House

President pro tempore of the Senate

Secretary of State

Secretary of the Treasury

Secretary of Defense

Attorney General

Secretary of the Interior

Secretary of Agriculture

Secretary of Commerce

Secretary of Labor

Secretary of Health and Human Services

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

Secretary of Transportation

Secretary of Energy

Secretary of Education

Secretary of Veterans Affairs

Secretary of Homeland Security**The order of this position may change, pending congressional legislation.Source: thomas.loc.gov.

Line of Presidential Succession

Line of Presidential Succession

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law, the next in line for the presidency is the Speak-er of the House. The president pro tempore of theSenate follows the Speaker. Next in line are the cab-inet officers, starting with the secretary of state.The other 14 department heads follow in the orderin which Congress created the departments.

Presidential Disability What happens if apresident becomes seriously disabled while in of-fice? Several presidents were not able to fulfill theirresponsibilities. President James Garfield lingeredbetween life and death for 80 days after he was shotin 1881. During that period, no one was officiallydesignated to take on the duties of the president. Astroke disabled President Woodrow Wilson in Oc-tober 1919. During his recovery, Mrs. Wilson oftenperformed his duties. In 1955 President Dwight D.Eisenhower’s heart attack completely disabled himfor several days. For a few months after that, hecould do only a limited amount of work. Duringhis illness Eisenhower’s assistants ran the executivebranch while Vice President Nixon stood in forhim on ceremonial occasions.

The Twenty-fifth Amendment sets forth a se-ries of rules to be followed when a president be-comes disabled. The amendment provides that thevice president becomes acting president under oneof two conditions. First, the vice president assumes

the president’s duties if the president informs Con-gress of an inability to perform in office. Second,the amendment says that the vice president willtake over for the president if the vice president anda majority of the cabinet or another body autho-rized by law informs Congress that the president isdisabled. This second provision would take effect ifa disabled president was unwilling or unable to in-form Congress that he or she could not continue tocarry out presidential duties.

Under the terms of the Twenty-fifth Amend-ment, the president can resume the powers andduties of office at any time simply by informingCongress that a disability no longer exists. If, how-ever, the vice president and a majority of the cabi-net or other body authorized by law contends thatthe president has not sufficiently recovered to per-form properly, Congress must settle the disputewithin 21 days. Unless Congress decides in the vicepresident’s favor by a two-thirds vote in eachhouse, the president may resume office.

The Vice President’s Role The Constitution gives the vice presidentonly two duties. First, the vice president

presides over the Senate and votes in that body incase of a tie. Most vice presidents spend very little


Presidential VacancyOn March 30, 1981, JohnHinckley, Jr., attempted to assassinate PresidentRonald Reagan. Vice Pres-ident George H.W. Bushtook charge during Rea-gan’s subsequent surgery.Why is an official presi-dential line of succes-sion needed?

Next in Line

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Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

time in this job. Second, under the Twenty-fifthAmendment, the vice president helps decidewhether the president is disabled and acts as pres-ident should that happen.

Fourteen vice presidents have become presi-dent. Of these, nine vice presidents have succeededto the office upon the death or resignation of thepresident. Some have done so under difficult cir-cumstances. Harry S Truman became president in1945, near the end of World War II, when FranklinD. Roosevelt died in office.

Modern Responsibilities A vice president’swork and power depend upon what responsi-bilities, if any, the president assigns. HubertHumphrey, Lyndon Johnson’s vice president, oncesaid, “The only authority he [the Vice President]has is what the President gives him. He who givethcan taketh away.”

The presidents before Eisenhower (1953-1961) usually ignored their vice presidents. SinceEisenhower, however, presidents have tried to givetheir vice presidents more responsibility.Vice pres-idents today often participate in policy discussionsand special assignments such as making speechesdefending the president’s policies. In addition, theyare involved in diplomatic activities such as repre-senting the president overseas. Vice presidents arealso members of the National Security Council.

Vice President Richard Cheney has greaterresponsibilities than most previous vice presi-dents. Cheney consults with President Bush and

frequently represents him in meetings with impor-tant cabinet members, lawmakers, and foreigndignitaries. Cheney has also led groups developingnew policies in key areas such as energy. Onesenator reported the president as saying, “Whenyou’re talking to Dick Cheney, you’re talking to me. When Dick Cheney’s talking, it’s me talking.”

Executive Powers Vice President Cheney beganhis duties as chair of the George W. Bush admin-istration’s transition team. John Adams once said, “I am Vice President. In this I am nothing,but I may be everything.” What did he mean?

Growth of Democracy Conduct a survey usingthe following questions: In your opinion, whenwill the United States have its first female presi-dent? Its first minority president? Tabulate theresults on graphs and display them in class.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic organizer like the one

below, show three constitutional requirementsand three informal requirements of a president.

2. Define compensation, presidential succession.3. Identify Twenty-second Amendment, Twenty-fifth

Amendment.4. Who are the first four officers in the line of

succession to the presidency?

Critical Thinking5. Drawing Conclusions Why do you think presi-

dential candidates who represent moderateviews usually win elections?

Constitutional Informal1.2.3.


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John Quincy Adams was chosen by the Houseas the sixth president. Initially, at the Consti-tutional Convention, the Founders proposedthat Congress choose the president without a

popular or an electoral vote. They gave up the ideabecause it violated the principle of separation ofpowers making it possible for Congress to domi-nate the presidency.

Direct popular vote was another possiblemethod for electing the president. Many of theFounders, however, feared that citizens could notmake a wise choice because they knew little aboutpotential leaders. There was no national newsmedia, radio, or television. In addition, some lead-ers believed that the most popular candidatesmight not be the best presidents.

After weeks of debate, the Founders settled ona compromise that Alexander Hamilton intro-duced. This compromise set up an indirectmethod of election called the Electoral College.With a few changes, that system is still in use today.

The Original SystemArticle II, Section 1,1 established the Elec-toral College. It provided that each state

would choose electors according to a method thestate legislatures set up. Each state would have asmany electors as it had senators and representa-tives in Congress. At election time, the electorswould meet in their own states and cast votes fortwo presidential candidates. This vote was theelectoral vote. No popular vote was cast for theearly presidential elections.

Electoral votes from all the states would becounted in a joint session of Congress. The can-didate receiving a majority of the electoralvotes would become president. The candidatereceiving the second highest number of votes,who also had a majority, would become vice

Electing the PresidentS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

House Chooses President WASHINGTON, D.C., DECEMBER 1824

General Andrew

Jackson has won

the popular presiden-

tial vote, but his 99

electoral votes are not

enough to win the

highest office. The elec-

tors, divided among

four candidates, give

no one the election.

The House of Repre-

sentatives will now be asked to choose the president.

It is likely their choice will be between General Jack-

son and John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts. Jack-

son feels confident that the House will make him

president. Many observers, however, believe that

House Speaker Henry Clay could sway enough votes

to give Adams the office.

Jackson campaign box


Reader’s Guide

Key Termselector, electoral vote

Find Out■ What evidence suggests that the Founders did

not anticipate the effects of political parties onpresidential elections?

■ Based on the historical record of elections,how well has the Electoral College performed inselecting presidents the nation wanted?

Understanding ConceptsConstitutional Interpretations How has themethod of electing a president changed to makethe process more democratic?

See the following footnoted materials in the ReferenceHandbook:1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

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president. In case of a tie, or if no one received amajority, the House of Representatives wouldchoose the president or vice president, with eachstate having one vote.

As expected, the Electoral College unani-mously chose George Washington asthe nation’s first president in 1789and 1792. After President Wash-ington retired, however, politi-cal parties began to play animportant role in nationalelections. Political partieshad an unexpected andprofound impact on the Electoral College system.

The Impact of Political Parties

By 1800 two national parties—the Federal-ists and the Democratic-Republicans—had

formed. Each party nominated its own candidatefor president and vice president. Each party alsonominated candidates for electors in every state. Itwas understood that if they were chosen, theseelectors would vote for their party’s candidates.

In the election of 1800, the Democratic-Repub-licans won a majority of electoral votes. As agreed,each Democratic-Republican elector cast one votefor each of the party’s candidates—Thomas Jeffer-son and Aaron Burr. While most electors wantedJefferson as president, both Jefferson and Burrwound up with 73 votes. Because of the tie, the elec-tion went to the House of Representatives.

The opposing party, the Federalists, controlledthe House of Representatives. Popular opinion inthe nation supported Jefferson, but many Federal-ists in the House favored Burr. The House debatedday and night for six days. Thirty-six ballots weretaken before Jefferson was finally elected presidentand Burr vice president. The 1800 election clearlydemonstrated the need for a change in the rulesbefore the next election.

The Twelfth Amendment was added to theConstitution in 1804 to solve the problem. It re-quires that the electors cast separate ballots forpresident and vice president. The amendment alsoprovides that if no candidate receives a majority ofthe electoral votes, the House chooses from the

three candidates who have the largest number ofelectoral votes. If no candidate for vice presidentgets a majority of electoral votes, the Senate choos-es from the top two candidates for vice president.

In the 1820s states began to place presidentialcandidates on the ballot. Since then political par-ties have chosen electors by popular vote. Partiesalso changed their method of nominating presi-dential candidates, giving the people more of avoice. The Electoral College system adapted to thegrowth of democracy.

The Electoral College System Today

The Electoral College is still the method ofchoosing the president and vice president.

Parties choose their nominees for president inconventions held in late summer. Voters cast their


Political Symbols Frederick Kemmelmeyercreated this reverential painting to honor Wash-ington, our nation’s only unanimously electedpresident. What symbols did the artist usein this painting and how do you think heviewed Washington?

The First President

Fan endorsing Thomas Jefferson in 1800

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ballots for president every four years (1992, 1996,2000, etc.) on the Tuesday after the first Monday inNovember. While the candidates’ names are print-ed on the ballot, the voters are not actually votingdirectly for president and vice president. Rather,they are voting for all of their party’s electors intheir state. In December these electors will cast theofficial vote for president and vice president. Thus,

a vote for the Democratic candidate is actually avote for the Democratic electors, and a vote for theRepublican candidate is a vote for the Republicanelectors.

The Electoral College includes 538 electors—anumber determined by the total of House and Senate members plus 3 for the District of Columbia.Each state has as many electors as it has senators


The writers of the Constitution chose the electoral college system as a compromise between selection by Congress and election by popular vote. How many weeks pass between a presidential election and inauguration? Is this much time necessary? Why?

Critical Thinking

Source: Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections: http://uselectionatlas.org.

Presidents Elected Who Lost the Popular Vote

Presidential Election Year

** Hayes was awarded the disputed electoral votes of three states by a special commission.

* Clay and Crawford also received electoral votes. Theelection was determined in the House of Representatives.

PresidentElectoral

VotePopular

VoteJohn Q. Adams*

Rutherford B. Hayes**

Benjamin Harrison

George W. Bush

Opponent

Andrew Jackson

Samuel J. Tilden

Grover Cleveland

Albert Gore

84

185

233

271

Electoral Vote

99

184

168

266

113,122

4,034,311

5,443,892

50,456,002

Popular Vote151,271

4,288,546

5,534,488

50,999,897

Candidate receiving majority of electoral votes is sworn in as president of the United States.

Voters cast ballots for a slate of electors pledged to a particular presidential candidate.

Winning electors in each state meet in their state capitals to cast their votes for president and vice president.

Statement of the vote is sent to Washington, D.C.

Congress counts electoral votes. A majority of electoral votes is needed to win (270 out of 538).

Tuesday after first Monday in November

January 20

January 6

Monday after second Wednesday in December

The Electoral College SystemThe Electoral College System

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Electing Your President

Y oung people are less likely to vote than anyother age group. However, Music Television(MTV) and Rock the Vote hope to draw more

young voters into the political process.Rock the Vote is a nonprofit organization dedi-

cated to educating and involving young people. Itconducts voter registration drives at rock concertsand on rock radio stations. It can even register youto vote over the Internet.

During presidential campaigns, Rock the Voteand MTV distribute a free election guide for youngvoters at record stores across the nation. MTValso airs a voter education series called Choose orLose. MTV personalities interview the candidatesabout issues of interest to young voters. Televised

MTV forums allow youngpeople to express their con-cerns directly to the candi-dates. MTV Online makeselection information avail-able on the Internet. The pres-idential candidates have Internet home pages thatyou also can contact for information.

Measuring Success How successful was Rockthe Vote in the last presidential election? Gatherinformation through magazine articles in Readers’Guide to Periodical Literature. Create a graphicusing your findings.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

223

and representatives in Congress. Wyoming with 1representative and 2 senators has 3 electoral votes.California, the most populous state, with 53 repre-sentatives and 2 senators, has 55 electoral votes. Tobe elected president or vice president, a candidatemust win at least 270 of the 538 votes. The ElectoralCollege is a winner-take-all system with the excep-tion of Maine and Nebraska. The party whose can-didate receives the largest popular vote in any statewins all the electoral votes of that state even if themargin of victory is only one popular vote.

The winning presidential candidate is usuallyannounced on the same evening as the popularelection because popular-vote counts indicate whowon each state. The formal election by the Elec-toral College, however, begins on the Monday fol-lowing the second Wednesday in December whenthe electors meet in each state capital and cast theirballots. The electoral ballots from each state aresealed and mailed to the president of the Senate fora formal count. On January 6 both houses of Con-gress meet in the House of Representatives to openand count the ballots. Congress then officially de-clares the winner president.

Most states do not legally require electors tovote for the candidate who wins the popular vote,but electors usually do so. A few electors, however,have ignored this tradition. In 1976 an elector

from the state of Washington voted for RonaldReagan, even though Gerald Ford had won the ma-jority of popular votes in the state. In 2004, an elec-tor from Minnesota voted for John Edwards, theDemocratic vice-presidential candidate, for bothpresident and vice president. Over the years, nineother electors have broken with custom.

Electoral College IssuesThe Electoral College system works well inmost elections. However, the call for reform

is heard after every closely contested election. Crit-ics point to three major weaknesses in the systemthat could affect the outcome of an election.

Winner Take All In all but two states (Maineand Nebraska), if a candidate wins the largestnumber of popular votes, that person receives allthe state’s electoral votes. Critics argue that thissystem is unfair to those who voted for a losingcandidate. For example, in 1992 more than 2 mil-lion Texans voted for Bill Clinton, but Clinton didnot receive any of Texas’s electoral votes.

The winner-take-all system makes it possiblefor a candidate who loses the popular vote to win the electoral vote. This usually happens when

MTV logo

220-227 CH08S2-860053 12/15/04 3:29 PM Page 223

of the votes. The third party couldthen bargain to release electoralvotes to one of the two major-party candidates.

Some people say GovernorGeorge Wallace of Alabama wantedto use this tactic in the 1968 elec-tion. Wallace ran as the AmericanIndependent Party’s candidate andwon 5 states and 46 electoral votes.The election between RepublicanRichard Nixon and Democrat Hu-bert Humphrey was very close,with Nixon winning by only about500,000 popular votes. IfHumphrey had beaten Nixon in afew more states, Nixon would nothave won a majority of the electoralvotes. Then, unless Wallace’s elec-tors voted for Nixon, the electionwould have gone to the House ofRepresentatives.

Election by the House Whenthe House of Representatives mustdecide a presidential election, eachstate casts one vote. The candidate

who receives 26 or more of the votes is elected.Election by the House involves three prob-

lems: (l) States with small populations, such asAlaska or Nevada, have as much weight as stateswith large populations, such as New York or Cali-fornia. (2) Under the rules, if a majority of repre-sentatives from a state cannot agree on a candidate,the state loses its vote. (3) If some members of theHouse favor a strong third-party candidate, itcould be difficult for any candidate to get the 26votes needed to win.

Ideas for Reform People usually criticize theElectoral College system whenever problems arise.Many changes to the system have been proposed.One idea is to choose electors from congressionaldistricts. Each state would have two electoral votes,plus one vote for each congressional district in thestate. The candidate winning the most votes in acongressional district would win the electoral votein that district. The candidate winning the mostdistricts in a state would, in addition, receive thetwo statewide electoral votes.

a candidate wins several large states by narrow margins. Four times in American history—in theelections of John Quincy Adams in 1824, Ruther-ford B. Hayes in 1876, Benjamin Harrison in 1888,and George W. Bush in 2000—the candidate wholost the popular vote won the election. In the 2000election, for example, Democrat Al Gore wonabout 500,000 more popular votes than Republi-can George W. Bush. Bush, however, received 271electoral votes to 266 for Gore. The 1960 electionalmost became another example. Democrat JohnKennedy defeated Republican Richard Nixon in avery close popular vote. Kennedy won Illinois andTexas by a narrow margin of about 1 percent of thepopular vote. If Nixon had won these states, hewould have won the election by winning the elec-toral vote while narrowly losing the popular vote.

Third-Party Candidates When a third-partycandidate is a strong presidential contender, otherproblems can arise. A third-party candidate couldwin enough electoral votes to prevent eithermajor-party candidate from receiving a majority


25 Electoral Votes at Stake

Recounting Ballots Broward County, Florida, election workersscrutinize ballots during the presidential contest of 2000. The racewas so close that election officials in several Florida counties manu-ally recounted the ballots to make sure that the count was accu-rate. Who selects the president and vice president if nocandidate receives a majority of the electoral votes?

220-227 CH08S2-860053 12/1/04 6:51 PM Page 224

Another plan proposes that the presidentialcandidates would win the same share of a state’selectoral vote as they received of the state’s popularvote. If a candidate captured 60 percent of the pop-ular vote, for example, the candidate would earn 60percent of the state’s electoral vote.

This plan too would cure the winner-take-allproblem. Moreover, it would remove the possibility

of electors voting for someone that they are notpledged to support. Critics of the plan point outthat it could possibly enlarge the role of third par-ties and complicate the election process. Becausethird-party candidates could get at least someshare of the electoral vote in each election, theymight also be able to force a presidential electioninto the House of Representatives.


Source: The Washington Post Company, November 9, 2004.

Source: Federal Election Commission.

Bush27150.5%

Gore26649.5%

Bush28653.2%

Kerry25146.7%

Gore50,999,89748.4%

Bush50,456,00247.9%

Nader2,882,9552.7%

Kerry56,249,55148%

Bush59,729,95251%

Other1,085,2281%

Critical Thinking After losing the popular vote in 2000, President George W. Bush won both the electoral vote and the popular vote in 2004. Which states that backed the Democratic candidate in 2000 voted Republican in 2004?

WA

OR

CANV

ID

MT

WY

UT

AZ NM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

NDMN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LA

MS AL GA

FL

SC

NCTN

KYWV VA

MD

DE

NJ

CT

RI

MAME

NHVT

NY

PAOH

IN

MI

IL

AK

HI

WA

OR

CANV

ID

MT

WY

UT

AZ NM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

NDMN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LA

MS AL GA

FL

SC

NCTN

KYWV VA

MD

DE

NJ

CT

RI

MAME

NHVT

NY

PAOH

IN

MI

IL

AK

HI

* Preliminary figures as of November 9, 2004

* May not total 100% due to rounding

Popular and Electoral VotesPopular and Electoral Votes

Republican(Bush)

Democrat(Gore)

Green Party(Nader)

Republican(Bush)

Democrat(Kerry)

Electoral Vote

Popular Vote*

Electoral Vote

Popular Vote*

2000

2004

220-227 CH08S2-860053 12/15/04 1:35 AM Page 225

Direct Popular Election Anotherplan is to do away with the Electoral Col-lege entirely. Instead, the people would di-rectly elect the president and vicepresident. While this alternative may seemobvious, some have criticized it on thegrounds that it would greatly change thestructure of the federal system. It wouldundermine federalism because the stateswould lose their role in the choice of apresident. It would also mean that candi-dates would concentrate their efforts indensely populated areas. Large cities suchas New York and Los Angeles could con-trol the outcome of an election.

The InaugurationThe new president, called the pres-ident-elect until the inauguration,

takes office at noon on January 20 in theyear following the presidential election.The Constitution requires the presidentto take this simple oath:

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I willfaithfully execute the office of President ofthe United States, and will, to the best ofmy ability, preserve, protect, and defendthe Constitution of the United States.”—Article II, Section 8

By custom, an inaugural ceremony isheld outside the Capitol in Washington,D.C., weather permitting. The new presi-dent rides with the outgoing presidentfrom the White House to the Capitol forthe inauguration ceremonies. With theoutgoing president, family members, gov-ernment officials, and citizens looking on,the chief justice administers the oath ofoffice. The new president then gives an In-augural Address.

Several presidents have made notableinaugural speeches that have become partof the nation’s heritage. Abraham Lincolnspoke about healing and protecting a di-vided nation in 1865. At his inaugurationin the depths of the Great Depression,Franklin D. Roosevelt lifted the spirits ofhis fellow Americans with the words,“Theonly thing we have to fear is fear itself.” In1961 John F. Kennedy called on all Amer-icans to “ask not what your country cando for you—ask what you can do for your

country.”Members of Congress, foreign diplomats, and

thousands of citizens attend the inaugural ceremo-ny. Millions watch on television. After the speech,a parade goes from the Capitol to the WhiteHouse. That evening official parties celebrate theinauguration to thank people who supported thepresident’s election campaign.

Souvenir from John F. Kennedy’s

inauguration

Sect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 Assessment

Constitutional Interpretations Imagine that you are a member of an interest group. Choose a position for your group: keep the Electoral College, or abolish it. Then write a persuasive speech explainingyour position.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a

graphic organizer such as the one to the right, describe the ceremonial events that usually occur when a new president takes office.

2. Define elector, electoral vote.3. Identify Electoral College, Twelfth Amendment.4. Why do presidential candidates spend more time

in states with large populations?5. What does the phrase “winner take all” mean in

presidential elections?

Critical Thinking6. Determining Relevance In judging the Electoral

College, how important is it to know that on several occasions an elector broke with customand voted independently?


Inauguration

220-227 CH08S2-860053 12/1/04 6:51 PM Page 226


toto

SHOULD THE ELECTORALCOLLEGE BE REPLACED?

Some Americans think the Electoral College is outdated and ineffective. They want toabolish it and replace it with a system that lets people vote directly for a president. Thosewho favor the electoral system think it helps to unify the nation, as its creators intended.

Assume that you are a citizen testifying before a congressional committee weighing the advantages and disadvantages of the Electoral College system.

KEY ISSUES✔ What was the original purpose of the ElectoralCollege? Does it serve that purpose effectively?✔ What are the advantages and disadvantages ofhaving a direct election?

✔ How would presidential campaigns be affectedby direct elections?

Debate Divide the class into two groups—one thatsupports the system and one that does not. Allowtime for each group to prepare and present their arguments to the class.

Vote Make your decision. Then have the class votefor or against replacing the Electoral College system.

Debating the IssueDebating the Issue

SHOULD DIRECT ELECTIONS REPLACE THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE SYSTEM?

WINNER TAKE ALL

The most common argumentagainst the Electoral College systemis that a candidate can win withoutreceiving a majority of the popularvote as George W. Bush did in the2000 election. Another argumentis that a candidate can win a ma-jority of the popular vote and moreelectoral votes than any other candi-date, but still lose. This can happen if acandidate does not receive a majority ofelectoral votes, and the House of Representa-tives is called to decide on a winner.

A candidate can also win a large percentage ofpopular votes in a state, but have no electoral votesto show for it. This is especially true for third-partycandidates.

Critics say that the Electoral College system robsvoters of their power, because candidates often ig-nore smaller states with fewer electoral votes.

GUARDING AGAINST TYRANNY

Supporters of the Electoral College say most people do notunderstand the merits of the system. James Madison, one ofthe original creators, believedthat if a majority vote was used,the rights of minorities could

be compromised. He wanted toguard against "the superior force

of an . . . overbearing majority." Under the Electoral College sys-

tem, a candidate cannot win without win-ning in a large number of states. Supportersconsider this an advantage because candidatesmust reach a broad range of people with varyingviewpoints to win the vote. Those who focus on narrow segments of the population are less likely tobe elected. Supporters also contend that each voterhas more clout in an election that involves 51 sepa-rate elections than in one large national election.

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The Cabinet

Soon after President Washington’s election,Congress created a Department of State, aDepartment of War, a Department of theTreasury, and the Attorney General’s office.

The president met regularly with his departmentheads and sought their advice on policy matters.The newspapers of the time called this groupWashington’s cabinet, the general term for the ad-visers around any head of state. The name stuck.

One of the first responsibilities of a presidentis to organize and staff the executive branch ofgovernment. In fact, the president-elect often hasselected most of his nominees for cabinet appoint-ments before taking the oath of office.

Today the president appoints the secretariesthat head the 15 major executive departments.Each appointee must be approved by the Senate.The 15 secretaries, the vice president, and severalother top officials make up the cabinet. Cabinetsecretaries are more than advisers; they are alsoadministrators of large bureaucracies.

The Selection of the CabinetIn selecting their department heads, pres-idents must balance a great many politi-

cal, social, and management considerations.Secretaries should have some credible expertisein the policy areas their departments will man-age. Appointees must be acceptable to all groupswith political power. They should provide geo-graphic balance as well as racial and gender rep-resentation. Patronage and party loyalty also areusually important.

Major Factors in Making AppointmentsThe selection of a president’s cabinet is largelya political process. One consideration is that anappointee have a background that is compati-ble with the department he or she will head.This qualification also can bring some geo-graphic balance to the cabinet. The secretary ofthe interior, for example, typically is someone

S e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Jefferson Resigns

The bitter feud that

has plagued President

George Washington’s cabi-

net ended today, as Thomas

Jefferson stepped down

as secretary of state. The

action followed months of

tension between Jefferson

and Secretary of the Trea-

sury Alexander Hamilton.

The contest for influence

with the president was set-

tled during the recent crisis with France, when

Washington relied on Hamilton instead of his secre-

tary of state. Jefferson recently said of his rival,“I will

not suffer my retirement to be clouded by the slan-

ders of a man whose history, from the moment at

which history can stoop to notice him, is a tissue of

machinations against the liberty of the country.”


NEW YORK CITY, DECEMBER 31, 1793

Reader’s Guide

Key Termscabinet, leak

Find Out■ What role does politics play in the appointment

of cabinet secretaries? ■ How have factors that limit the role of the cabi-

net as an advisory body affected the relation-ship between cabinet officers and the presi-dents they serve?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes Why are cabinet secretarieswho administer large executive departments oftennot insiders at the White House?

Thomas Jefferson

228-233 CH08S3-860053 12/1/04 7:23 PM Page 228

Interest GroupsMadeleine Albright, thefirst female secretary of state, shakes handswith Japanese foreignminister Yukihiko Ikeda.Albright is a Washingtonacademic who fled Com-munist Czechoslovakia as a child. What groupsof citizens might havefelt pride in Albright’sappointment?

from a western state who has experience in landpolicy and conservation issues. The secretary ofhousing and urban development (HUD) generallyhas a big city background. The secretary of agri-culture usually is from a farm state.

Equally important is the president’s need tosatisfy powerful interest groups that have a stake ina department’s policies. The secretary of labor,therefore, generally must be someone acceptable tolabor unions. The secretary of commerce is ex-pected to have a good reputation with businessand industry. The secretary of the treasury is oftena banker or someone with close ties to the financialcommunity.

In addition, it is important that appointeeshave high-level administrative skills and experi-ence. Cabinet officers are responsible for huge de-partments that employ thousands of people andspend billions of dollars each year. If inefficiencyor scandal should result, blame will fall on the sec-retary—and on the president.

As women and minority groups have gainedpolitical power, presidents have considered therace, gender, and ethnic background of candidateswhen making their appointments. In 1966 LyndonJohnson named the first African American depart-ment secretary, Robert Weaver, to lead HUD.Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed the first woman

to the cabinet, Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins,in 1933. Women in the cabinet remained rare until1975, when President Ford appointed Carla Hillsas HUD secretary. Since then, every president’scabinet has included women and African Ameri-cans. President Reagan named the first Hispanic,Lauro F. Cavazos, as secretary of education, in1988. President Clinton used cabinet appoint-ments as an opportunity to recruit women and mi-norities to top government posts. The Clintoncabinet became the most gender and racially bal-anced team in history.

Even after people who satisfy all the require-ments are selected, obstacles still exist. It is not al-ways easy to convince them to take the positions.Faced with giving up a secure career for a possibleshort-term appointment, many qualified candi-dates find the pay, the work, or life in Washingtonpolitics to be unattractive. Almost all modern pres-idents have been turned down by some of the peo-ple they have invited to join their cabinets.

Background of Cabinet Members Whatkind of person does accept appointment to thecabinet, and why? Almost without exception, cabi-net members are college graduates. Many have ad-vanced degrees. Most are leaders in the fields ofbusiness, industry, law, science, and education.


Clinton’s Chief Diplomat

228-233 CH08S3-860053 12/1/04 7:23 PM Page 229

Cabinet secretaries earn $161,200 per year, andmany cabinet members assume government jobseven though they know that they could haveearned more than twice that amount in privateemployment. Some take their posts out of a deepsense of public service. Typically they move easilyin and out of government posts from their posi-tions in private industry or the legal, financial, oreducational world.

Nominations and Confirmation The selec-tion process for a new president’s cabinet beginslong before Inauguration Day. The president-electdraws up a list of candidates after consulting withcampaign advisers, congressional leaders, and rep-resentatives of interest groups. Key campaignstaffers meet with potential candidates to discussthe issues facing the department they may be askedto head. Before making final decisions, members ofthe president-elect’s team may leak, or deliberate-ly disclose, some candidates’ names to the newsmedia. They do this to test the reaction of Con-gress, interest groups, and the public.

The Senate holds confirmation hearings onthe president’s nominees for cabinet posts. Thenominee to head each department appears beforethe Senate committee that oversees the depart-ment to answer questions about his or her back-ground and views.

The cabinet is viewed as part of the president’sofficial family. The Senate, therefore, usually cooperates in the appointment process, and most confirmation hearings are routine. Of more than500 cabinet appointments since the time of GeorgeWashington, the Senate has rejected only a handful.

Appointments are not automatic, however.President Clinton had been in office less than amonth when his nominee for attorney general,Zoë Baird, had to bow out of the confirmationprocess. In the midst of Senate hearings, a newspa-per reported that Baird earlier had hired illegalaliens for household work. A groundswell of pub-lic opinion derailed the nomination.

The Role of the CabinetAs individuals, cabinet members are re-sponsible for the executive departments

they head. As a group, the cabinet is intended toserve as an advisory body to the president. Formany reasons, however, most presidents have beenreluctant to give the cabinet a major advisory role.

The cabinet meets when the president calls ittogether. Meetings may be once a week but usuallyare much less frequent, depending on how a presi-dent uses the cabinet. Meetings take place in thecabinet room of the White House and are usuallyclosed to the public and the press.

Advising the PresidentSeated next to PresidentWashington are the mem-bers of the first cabinet—Henry Knox, AlexanderHamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and EdmundRandolph. Analyze therole of the cabinet. Howhas its role and sizechanged since Washington’s first administration?

The First Cabinet


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The Cabinet in History From the beginning,the cabinet’s role in decision making has dependedon how each president wanted to define it. Strongerpresidents, such as Jackson, Lincoln, Wilson, andFranklin Roosevelt, have paid the cabinet less atten-tion. Andrew Jackson depended on a small group offriends instead of his cabinet for advice. Since theyoften met in the White House kitchen, they becameknown as the “kitchen cabinet.” During the GreatDepression, Roosevelt relied more on a group ofuniversity professors called the “brain trust” and hiswife Eleanor than on his cabinet.

Some members of Lincoln’s cabinet thoughthe was weak and that they would run the govern-ment. They soon learned otherwise. Secretary ofState William Seward acknowledged, “The Presi-dent is the best of us. There is only one vote in theCabinet, and it belongs to him.” Lincoln’s treat-ment of his cabinet illustrates the role it has playedthrough much of American history. Before issuingthe Emancipation Proclamation, he called his cab-inet together to inform them of his intention toend slavery. He told them:

“I have gathered you together to hear whatI have written down. I do not wish youradvice about the main matter. That I havedetermined for myself.”—Abraham Lincoln, 1862


Influencing PolicySecretary of StateColin Powell (left),Secretary of DefenseDonald Rumsfeld,and Secretary ofCommerce DonaldEvans (right) listen asPresident George W.Bush discusses the federal budget duringa cabinet meeting.Should presidents beobligated to makegreater use of theircabinets? Why orwhy not?

Cabinet Members at Work

The Modern Cabinet Several recent presi-dents have attempted to increase the role of thecabinet in decision making. In the end, however,most have given up and turned elsewhere for ad-vice. After President Kennedy was assassinated,Lyndon Johnson was anxious to get along with hispredecessor’s cabinet. He felt he needed them for asmooth transition of power and wanted them tobrief him on what was going on in their depart-ments. Soon Johnson, too, was calling on the cabi-net less and less. When a meeting occurred, it wasgenerally to give department heads what one pres-idential assistant called their “marching orders.”Johnson’s cabinet fared better than RichardNixon’s, however. Some of Nixon’s cabinet mem-bers did not see him for months at a time.

At the start of his presidency, Ronald Reaganalso pledged to make greater use of the cabinet. Hestated that his department heads would be his“inner circle of advisers.” In an attempt to improveits usefulness, Reagan divided his cabinet intosmaller groups. Each group was responsible for abroad policy area such as natural resources or foodand agriculture. After only a year in office, howev-er, Reagan began to rely mainly on his WhiteHouse aides for advice. Presidents Bush and Clin-ton used their cabinets as sounding boards fortheir ideas rather than as the advisory body Presi-dent Washington envisioned.

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The Influence of Cabinet Members Somecabinet members who work closely with the presi-dent wield influence because they head depart-ments that are concerned with national issues. Thesecretaries of state, defense, treasury, and the attor-ney general fill this role in most administrations.These officials are sometimes called an “inner cab-inet.” Other secretaries who head departmentsthat represent narrower interests such as agricul-ture or veterans’ affairs are less influential and haveless direct access to the president.

Factors Limiting the Cabinet’s Role

Several factors limit the president’s use ofthe cabinet for advice in making key deci-

sions or for help in running the executive branch.Understanding these factors helps to explain whypresidents have come to rely on assistants in theExecutive Office of the President, a presidential ad-visory agency established by Congress.

Conflicting Loyalties No president com-mands the complete loyalty of cabinet members.Even though the president appoints them, cabinetofficials have three other constituencies that re-quire loyalty: career officials in their own depart-ment, members of Congress, and special-interestgroups. Each of these groups has its own stake in

the department’s programs. Each may push thesecretary in directions that are not always in accordwith the president’s plans and policies.

Disagreements among secretaries may resultfrom loyalty to their department’s programs or toits constituent groups. In addition, competitionamong secretaries for control of a program maycause conflict in the cabinet. President Reagan’ssecretary of state, George Schulz, and Secretary ofDefense Caspar Weinberger battled to influencethe president on arms control and foreign policyfor almost two years before Weinberger finally re-signed in 1987.

Secrecy and Trust A second factor that re-duces the usefulness of the cabinet is the difficultyof maintaining secrecy when 15 cabinet secretariesare involved in a discussion of sensitive topics.Presidents sometimes have discovered cabinet de-bates reported in the press.

Presidents, like anyone else, would prefer todiscuss tough problems with people they knowand trust. Yet, because of all the factors that mustbe considered when choosing department heads,presidents generally appoint relative strangers totheir cabinets. President Kennedy, for example,had never met his secretary of defense and secre-tary of the treasury before he appointed them. Forthese reasons presidents have increasingly turnedto the Executive Office of the President and to theirown personal White House staffs for help.

Sect ion 3 Re v iewSect ion 3 Re v iewSect ion 3 AssessmentSect ion 3 Assessment

Political Processes Search library resourcesfor information about the major responsibilitiesof one of the 15 executive departments. Thenprepare a list of interview questions that youthink would help to determine the competenceof a potential secretary of the executive de-partment you chose.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Using a graphic

organizer like the one to the right, show which cabinet members often form an “inner circle” closer to the president and which have less direct contact.

2. Define cabinet, leak.3. Identify Robert Weaver, Frances Perkins.4. What five factors do presidents consider when

choosing cabinet officers?5. Explain how the decline of the cabinet as an ad-

visory body to the president weakens the systemof checks and balances.

Critical Thinking6. Identifying Alternatives What could a president

do when choosing cabinet members to increasetheir value as advisers?


Pres.

228-233 CH08S3-860053 12/1/04 7:24 PM Page 232

Interpreting an Election Map

Election maps show various kinds of infor-mation about an election. For example,an election map might show the results of

a presidential election by identifying the statesthat voted for each candidate. Another mapmight show the outcome of a congressional election, district by district.

Learning the Skill

To read an election map, follow these steps:• Examine the map title or caption to deter-

mine what election information is beingshown.

• Examine the map key to determine how in-formation is presented.

• Based on this information, decide whatkinds of questions the map is intended toanswer.

The map below answers some questionsabout the election of 1948, but not others. It does not, for example, provide the results of thepopular vote or the results of the final vote in the Electoral College.

Practicing the Skill

Evaluate the map above and answer the ques-tions that follow.1. What does the color red indicate on this map?2. What does the color blue indicate?3. How many states voted Republican?4. Which states split their electoral votes?5. Compare the two maps. Which states that

voted Republican in 1948 voted Democratic in 1960?

233

Application ActivityApplication Activity

Electoral Votes, 1960 Election

IndependentDemocratRepublican

WA

OR

CA

NV

ID

MT

WY

UT

AZ NM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

NDMN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LA

AL GA

FL

SC

NCTN

KYWV

VAMD

DE

NJCT

RI

MA

MENH

VT

NY

PAOHIN

MI

IL

MS

AK

HI

States’ Rights DemocratDemocratRepublican

Electoral Votes, 1948 ElectionWA

OR

CA

NV

ID

MT

WY

UT

AZ NM

CO

TX

OK

KS

NE

SD

NDMN

WI

IA

MO

AR

LA

MS AL GA

FL

SC

NCTN

KYWV VA

MD

DE

NJ

CT

RI

MAME

NHVT

NY

PAOHIN

MI

IL

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

In an almanac, newspaper, or other ref-erence work, find the results of a recent city,state, or national election. Draw an electionmap to present those results. Include a keyon your map.

228-233 CH08S3-860053 12/1/04 7:24 PM Page 233

Not all staff advisers are as high-profile asPresident Reagan’s National SecurityCouncil members were in 1987. The Ex-ecutive Office of the President (EOP)

consists of individuals and agencies that directly as-sist the president. Modern presidents rely on theEOP to provide specialized advice and informationneeded for decision making. They also use it to helpthem implement presidential decisions and to gainmore control over the executive branch.

Executive Office Agencies Created by President Franklin D. Rooseveltin 1939, the Executive Office of the President

has grown to serve the needs of each administra-tion. When Roosevelt took office in 1933 duringthe Great Depression, he immediately proposed avast number of federal programs to deal with thecountry’s serious economic problems.As Congresspassed one special program after another, the sizeof the national government began to grow rapidly.

By the mid-1930s, Roosevelt and his fewWhite House assistants felt overwhelmed becausethey could not coordinate all the new programsand gather all the information the presidentneeded. Consequently, in 1936 Roosevelt ap-pointed the President’s Committee on Adminis-trative Management to study the problem. In itsreport the Committee recommended that a per-sonal staff be “installed in the White House it-self, directly accessible to the president.” Thisstaff was to assist the president in:

“Obtaining quickly and without delay allpertinent information . . . so as to guidehim in making responsible decisions, andthen when decisions have been made, toassist him in seeing to it that every admin-istrative department and agency affected ispromptly informed.”—The President’s Committee on

Administrative Management, 1937

The Executive OfficeS e c t i o n 4S e c t i o n 4

Bush Grants PardonsWASHINGTON, D.C., DECEMBER 24, 1992

President George H.W.

Bush today pardoned

White House aides of former

president Ronald Reagan for

their involvement in the

Iran-contra affair. The

pardons closed the legal

troubles of those involved in

the scandal, which broke in

1986. Two Reagan national

security advisers and Na-

tional Security Council staff

were convicted of secret

weapons sales to Iran and il-

legal aid to the Nicaraguan “contra” rebels. In 1987

Reagan accepted a report that blamed the scandal on

his “hands-off” attitude toward his advisers. He also

accepted responsibility for the actions of his staff.

Protesting U.S. intervention in

Central America


Reader’s Guide

Key Termscentral clearance, national security adviser, press secretary

Find Out■ What historic changes have made the

Executive Office of the President necessary?■ In what ways are the members of the White

House Office similar to and different from thepresident’s cabinet?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes Who are among the presi-dent’s closest advisers on administration policy?

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In response Congress passed the Reorganiza-tion Act of 1939 that created the Executive Officeof the President. At the same time, PresidentFranklin Roosevelt moved the Bureau of the Bud-get out of the Treasury Department into the EOP,where it would be more responsive to his wishesand he could be more aware of its activities. As an-other part of the EOP, he established the White

House Office, which he intended to be a smallgroup of advisers working directly with the presi-dent on day-to-day matters.

Organization and Growth Today the EOPconsists of the White House Office and several specialized agencies that all report directly to thepresident. Agency staffs include attorneys, scientists,


Critical Thinking The number of executive office employees reached its peak in the early 1970s. Why do you think this number dropped after 1974?

Office of Management and Budget Council on Enviromental Quality

USA Freedom Corps

Office of Administration

Office of Science and Technology Policy

President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board

Domestic Policy Council

Council of Economic Advisers

National Security Council

Office of National Drug Control Policy

National Economic Council

Office of the United States Trade Representative

Selected Offices Within the EOP, 2004*

Source: Office of Management and Budget, 2001; www.whitehouse.gov.

President

* The offices in the EOP are constantly changing; they are not a fixed or mandated group.

Kennedy (1961–1963)

Johnson(1963–1969)

Nixon (1969–1974)

Ford (1974–1977)

Carter(1977–1981)

Reagan (1981–1989)

G.H.W. Bush(1989–1993)

Clinton (1993–2001)

Roosevelt (1933–1945)

Truman(1945–1953)

Eisenhower (1953–1961)

G.W. Bush (2001– )

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social scientists, and other highly technical or pro-fessional personnel. The EOP currently has morethan 1,500 full-time employees, many of whomwork in the west wing of the White House.

The Executive Office of the President has grownrapidly for three reasons. First, every president hasreorganized it, adding new agencies or expandingexisting ones in response to the problems of theday. For example, after an American-sponsored in-vasion of Cuba failed in 1961, President Kennedyenlarged the National Security Council staff.

Second, because some problems facing the na-tion’s industrial society are so complex, presidentshave wanted experts available to advise them aboutissues related to those problems. The Council ofEconomic Advisers was created for this reason.

Third, many of today’s huge federal programsrequire several executive departments and agenciesto work together. EOP staff members have been added to help coordinate these efforts. For

example, President Reagan created the Office ofNational Drug Control Policy in 1988. This de-partment coordinated the activities of more than50 federal agencies involved in the war on drugs.

Three of the oldest agencies in the EOP haveplayed the greatest role in presidential decisionmaking. They are the Office of Management andBudget, the National Security Council, and theCouncil of Economic Advisers.

The Office of Management and BudgetBefore 1970 the Office of Management and Bud-get (OMB) was called the Bureau of the Budget. Itis the largest agency in the EOP. Its director, usual-ly a trusted supporter of the president, has becomeas important as the cabinet secretaries. The OMBprepares the national budget that the presidentproposes to Congress each year.

Budgets reflect priorities. Because the nation’sbudget is not unlimited, the president must decidewhat spending is important and what is not. TheOMB’s budget indicates what programs the feder-al government will pay for and how much it willspend on them. Thus, the budget is a key way for apresident to influence the government’s directionand policies. In 1980 Ronald Reagan campaignedon a pledge to reduce the federal government’s rolein society and trim federal spending. Immediatelyafter taking office, Reagan ordered David Stock-man, his budget director, to prepare detailed plansto cut billions of dollars from government pro-grams. Since the Reagan administration, the bud-get director has taken an active role in shapingnational policy.

Each year all executive agencies submit theirbudgets to the OMB for review before they go intothe president’s budget. OMB officials then recom-mend to the president where to make cuts in eachagency budget. To challenge an OMB recommen-dation, an agency director must appeal directly tothe president or a top adviser. This system givesOMB real and continuing influence over executiveagencies.

The OMB also reviews all legislative proposalsexecutive agencies prepare. This review is calledcentral clearance. If, for example, the Departmentof Agriculture drafts a bill on farm price supports,OMB officials will review the bill before it goes toCongress. They make sure it agrees with the presi-dent’s policy objectives.


Budget Priorities Under OMB director FranklinRaines, the 1998 budget ran a surplus. Prior to this,the last balanced budget was in 1969. How doesthe federal budget reflect the administration’spriorities?

Preparing the National Budget

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The National Security Council Congresscreated the National Security Council (NSC) in1947 to advise the president and help coordinateAmerican military and foreign policy. Headed bythe president, the council also includes the vicepresident, secretary of state, and secretary of de-fense. The president may ask other advisers, suchas the CIA director or the chairman of the JointChiefs of Staff, to participate in NSC meetings.

A special assistant for national security affairs,commonly called the national security adviser,directs the NSC staff. Perhaps more than mostother advisory groups, the importance of the NSChas varied with the president’s use of it. Trumandid little with the NSC. Eisenhower held frequentNSC meetings, but he relied more on the advice ofhis secretary of state, John Foster Dulles. UnderKennedy the NSC assumed more importance inpresidential decision making.

During President Nixon’s first term from 1969to 1973, National Security Adviser Henry Kissingerhad a great deal of authority. Working closely withNixon, Kissinger developed the NSC into a kind ofalternate State Department in the White House. In1973 he negotiated the end of the Vietnam War. Healso negotiated the opening of diplomatic relationswith China and coordinated arms-control talkswith the Soviet Union.

President Carter experienced similar overlapin the activities of his national security adviser andhis secretary of state. The governments of othernations complained about the confusion this situ-ation created and asked whether the NSC or theState Department spoke for the United States inforeign-policy matters.

The National Homeland Security CouncilIn October 2001, after terrorists attacked the Penta-gon and the World Trade Center, President GeorgeW. Bush created the Office of Homeland Securityand the Homeland Security Council within theExecutive Office of the President. In November 2002,the Homeland Security Act created the Departmentof Homeland Security. This new cabinet depart-ment coordinates all federal agencies working tocounter terrorism in the United States. It is also re-sponsible for developing a national strategy to pro-tect the United States from future terrorist attacks.

The National Homeland Security Council re-mained within the EOP. It advises the president on

homeland security issues and is headed by the sec-retary of Homeland Security. The attorney general,the directors of the FBI, CIA, and Federal Emer-gency Management Agency (FEMA), and the secre-taries of Defense, Treasury, Transportation, andHealth and Human Services all serve on the Council.

The Council’s first major task arose shortlyafter September 11, when letters containing an-thrax—a potentially lethal type of bacteria—weresent to government offices and the news media.Several people died and some government build-ings were temporarily evacuated. Thousands ofpeople began taking antibiotics as a precautionagainst the disease.

The Council of Economic Advisers Sincethe Great Depression, the president has been thenation’s chief economic planner. Created in 1946,the Council of Economic Advisers helps the presi-dent formulate the nation’s economic policy.

Checks and Balances Henry Kissinger(right), Nixon’s most influential foreign policyadviser, won the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize withLe Duc Tho, the North Vietnamese negotiator,for negotiating a cease-fire in the Vietnam War.Fighting went on, though, until 1975. Whatdiplomatic milestones did Kissinger achievewhen he was head of NSC?

The National Security Adviser

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The Council assesses the nation’s economichealth, predicts future economic conditions, andaids other executive agencies involved with eco-nomic planning. It also proposes solutions to spe-cific problems, such as unemployment orinflation. It has access to information any federalagency gathers having to do with the Americaneconomy. The Council also helps prepare an annu-al report that is included in the Economic Report ofthe President and transmitted to Congress.

Other EOP Agencies The number and size ofEOP agencies varies according to the priorities ofeach president. For example, President Johnson setup an Office of Economic Opportunity to help im-plement his domestic programs. President Nixon,however, opposed many of Johnson’s social policiesand eliminated the agency.

The Domestic Policy Council helps the presidentplan and carry out long-range policies in domesticareas such as farming and energy. The National Eco-nomic Council helps carry out long-range economicpolicy. The Office of Environmental Policy advisesthe president on environmental issues and worksclosely with the Environmental Protection Agencyand the departments of Interior,Agriculture, and En-ergy. The Office of Science and Technology Policy ad-vises the president on all scientific and technological

matters that affect national policies and programs.The Office of the United States Trade Representativehelps negotiate trade agreements with other nations.

The White House OfficeThe nation’s first presidents had no person-al staff. George Washington hired his

nephew at his own expense to be his personal sec-retary. When James Polk was president from 1845to 1849, his wife Sarah served as his secretary. Dur-ing the 1890s both presidents Cleveland andMcKinley personally answered the White Housetelephone. As late as the 1930s, Herbert Hoover’spersonal staff consisted of a few secretaries, sever-al administrative assistants, and a cook.

In its 1937 study of the executive branch, thePresident’s Committee on Administrative Man-agement concluded:

“The President needs help. His immediatestaff assistance is entirely inadequate. Heshould be given a small number of execu-tive assistants who would be his directaides in dealing with the managerial agen-cies and administrative departments.”—The President’s Committee on

Administrative Management, 1937


Presenting the President’s Views to the World

Press SecretaryPresident George W.Bush’s press secre-tary, Scott McClellan,answers reporters’questions. The presssecretary meets regularly with themedia to keep thepublic informed of thepresident’s views anddecisions. Whatother officers aretop assistants to apresident?

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Organization and Growth Unlike the selec-tion of cabinet members, the president appointsWhite House staff without Senate confirmation.Key aides usually are longtime personal supportersof the president. Many are newcomers to Washing-ton. They do not usually have large constituencies,as do some cabinet officers.

The White House Office has become the mostimportant part of the Executive Office of the Pres-ident. From about 50 people under Roosevelt, theWhite House staff grew to almost 600 underNixon. Clinton’s White House Office consisted ofabout 380 people, a small number of whom re-ported directly to the president. These top assis-tants became an inner circle around the president.Chief among them were the president’s chief ofstaff, deputy chief of staff, White House counsel,and press secretary.

Duties of the White House Staff WhiteHouse aides perform whatever duties the presidentassigns them. Because of the role they perform,some aides become very influential. One formerpresidential adviser confided to an interviewer, “Ihad more power over national affairs in a few yearsin the White House than I could if I spent the restof my life in the Senate.”

One task of the White House Office is to gath-er information and provide advice about key issuesfacing the president. Some staffers are policy spe-cialists in specific areas such as foreign affairs orenergy problems. Others are political strategists,mainly concerned with the political impact of pol-

icy decisions the president makes. The WhiteHouse counsel advises the president on the legalconsequences of those decisions.

Top staff members also act as enforcers, tryingto make sure the executive agencies and depart-ments carry out key directives from the president.Bill Moyers, press secretary to President Johnson,explained,“The job of the White House assistant isto help the president impress his priorities on theAdministration.”

Other key White House staffers present thepresident’s views to the outside world. A press staffheaded by the press secretary handles the presi-dent’s relations with the White House press corps,sets up press conferences, and issues public state-ments in the president’s name. Other staff peoplework directly with members of Congress. Thechief assistant for legislative affairs, for example,advises the president about possible reactions inCongress to White House decisions. These staffmembers also lobby the lawmakers to gain supportfor presidential programs.

The executive departments and agencies writethe president thousands of reports and memos. Inaddition, a steady stream of people from insideand outside the government want to see the presi-dent. Key aides decide who and what gets throughto the president.

Recent presidents have given their top WhiteHouse staff increased authority over actual policy-making. As a result, more and more policy deci-sions are being made in the White House ratherthan in federal agencies.

Sect ion 4 Re v iewSect ion 4 Re v iewSect ion 4 AssessmentSect ion 4 Assessment

Political Processes Find out who the followingpresidential advisers are: chief of staff, deputychief of staff, White House counsel, and presssecretary. Research the background of eachadviser and present your findings in a chart.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a Venn diagram to show how the

functions of the White House Office and the cabinet are alike and how they are different.

2. Define central clearance, national security adviser, press secretary.

3. Identify EOP, OMB, NSC.4. List three reasons why the EOP has grown.5. What are the three oldest agencies in the EOP,

and what roles do they play?

Critical Thinking6. Synthesizing Information How does the influ-

ence of key presidential aides affect the checksand balances established by the Constitution?


White HouseOffice Cabinetboth

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240

N O T E B O O K

WASHINGTONTRADITIONS“I DO SOLEMNLY SWEAR

(or affirm) that I willfaithfully execute theOffice of President ofthe United States, andwill to the best of myability, preserve, protectand defend the Constitutionof the United States.”

Every American president sinceGEORGE WASHINGTON has taken this same oath of office.Presidents also follow these traditions set by Washington: • Bowing in greeting (replaced later by Thomas Jefferson with

shaking hands);• Deciding who will join the cabinet;• Giving an Inaugural Address and annual State of the Union

messages, as well as a Farewell Address when leaving office;• Attending the inauguration of the succeeding president.

COMFORTING A NATIONTHE AMERICAN PEOPLE TURN TO THE

president for leadership, strength, andcomfort in times of national tragedy. OnSeptember 11, 2001, President GeorgeW. Bush spoke to the nation after oneof the greatest tragedies in Americanhistory. Here is part of his speech:

“Today, our fellow citizens, our way oflife, our very freedom came under attackin a series of deliberate and deadlyterrorist acts. The victims were inairplanes, or in their offices; secretaries,businessmen and women, military and

federal workers; moms and dads, friends and neighbors. Thousandsof lives were suddenly ended by evil, despicable acts of terror. . . .

“A great people has been moved to defend a great nation. Terroristattacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but theycannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shattered steel,but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve. . . .”

M I L E S T O N E SNAMED, 1901. THE WHITEHOUSE received its official namefrom President TheodoreRoosevelt. The president’sresidence has also been calledthe President’s Palace, theExecutive Mansion, and thePresident’s House.

TOSSED, April 14, 1910. THE FIRST BASEBALL of theseason was thrown out byPresident William Taft inWashington, D.C. Otherpresidents have continued thistradition, including John F.Kennedy, who wanted to makea good showing and secretlypracticed his throw on theWhite House grounds.

WIRED, 2001. A WHITE HOUSEWEB SITE with news andinformation about the FirstFamily’s life in their famousresidence was introducedby George W. Bush’sadministration.The site evenincludes avideo tourconductedby theBush’sScottishterrier, Barney.

AP

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241

U . S . P R E S I D E N T S

“We have talked long enough inthis country about equal rights.We have talked 100 years ormore. It is time now to write thenext chapter, and to write it in thebooks of law.”

PRESIDENT LYNDON JOHNSON, 1963, shortly before getting Congress

to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964,which banned racial segregation

and discrimination in employment

“I am nota crook.”

PRESIDENTRICHARD

NIXONin 1973,

months beforebeing forced toresign over the

Watergate scandal

“Let freedom reign!”PRESIDENT GEORGE W. BUSH,

after being told that sovereign powerin Iraq had officially passed from the

U.S.-led coalition to the Iraqis inJune 2004

N U M B E R S N U M B E R S

2 The number of presidentswho are the sons of formerpresidents. They areGeorge W. Bush and JohnQuincy Adams.

50 The least numberof dogs that have lived inthe White House as thecommander in chief’sbest friend.

30 Theapproximatenumber of yearsthat RonaldReagan workedas a Hollywoodactor beforebecomingpresident.

1 The number of presidentsto resign from office. RichardNixon has this dubious honor.

4 The number of termsFranklin D. Roosevelt servedas president—the onlypresident to do so before theTwenty-second Amendment tothe Constitution limitedpresidents to two termsof office.

0 Amount of money HerbertHoover accepted

as his salaryfor beingpresident

V E R B A T I MWHAT PEOPLE SAID

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“I believe that it must be thepolicy of the United States tosupport free peoples who areresisting attempted subjugationby armed minorities or byoutside pressure.”

PRESIDENT HARRY TRUMAN, announcing the Truman Doctrine to

Congress in 1947

“The basis of our governmentbeing the opinion of the people,the first object shall be to keepthat right; and were it left for meto decide whether we should havea government without newspapers,or newspapers withoutgovernment, I should not hesitatea moment to choose the latter.”

THOMAS JEFFERSON, as hediscussed the role of the newspapers

and fears that the American pressmight have too much freedom,

in 1787

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Reviewing Key TermsDefine each of the following terms and use it in asentence that is appropriate to its meaning.

compensation leakpresidential succession central clearanceelectoral vote national security adviserelector press secretarycabinet

Recalling Facts1. List four special benefits that the president

receives while in office.

2. How does the winner-take-all system of theElectoral College operate?

3. What is the process by which cabinet mem-bers are selected and appointed?

4. What are the two major functions of the Officeof Management and Budget?

5. What are the four key positions on the WhiteHouse Office staff?

Understanding Concepts 1. Growth of Democracy Why do some people criti-

cize plans for the direct popular election of thepresident?

2. Constitutional Interpretations The youngestelected president was John Kennedy at 43.Why do you think the Framers of the Constitu-tion in 1787 set the minimum age for presi-dent at 35?

3. Political Processes Unlike heads of executivedepartments, White House staff members arenot required to receive congressional approval.What are the advantages and disadvantagesof this policy?

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 8Chapter 8

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 8–Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

• Made up of individuals and agencies that directly assist thepresident

• Includes agencies such as the Office of Management andBudget, the National Security Council, and the Council ofEconomic Advisers

• The White House Office staff, usually longtime personalsupporters of the president, are appointed without Senateconfirmation

• The White House Office has become the most importantpart of the EOP

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Must be 35 years old, natural-born citizen, 14-year resident ofthe United States; unwritten qualifications include governmentexperience, access to money, and moderate political beliefs

The President

• Made up of the heads of the 15 major executive depart-ments, the vice president, and several other top officials

• Appointed by the president, with the approval of Congress• Factors limiting the president’s use of the cabinet include

conflicting loyalties and the difficulty of maintaining secrecywhen such a large group is involved in discussions

Cabinet

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Critical Thinking1. Identifying Alternatives Use

a graphic organizer like theone below to rank the pro-posals for reforming theElectoral College systemfrom most to least desir-able. Explain your rankings.

2. Synthesizing InformationWill a president who relieson the cabinet for advicebe more or less informedthan one who depends onclose White House advis-ers? Explain your answer.

Applying Technology SkillsUsing the Internet Find information about current activities or events that are taking place at the White House by accessing the officialWhite House Web site. Using a word processor orpublishing software, summarize the informationyou find and format it into a “press release.”

Analyzing Primary SourcesWhen George Washington served his two terms aspresident, he set a number of precedents for howthe office of the president should be run and whatduties the president would hold. Washington out-lined many of his beliefs about the presidency inhis two inaugural addresses. The first was deliv-ered to Congress in 1789. Read the excerpt andanswer the questions that follow.

“By the article establishing the executive department it ismade the duty of the President "to recommend to yourconsideration such measures as he shall judge necessaryand expedient." The circumstances under which I nowmeet you will acquit me from entering into that subjectfurther than to refer to the great constitutional charterunder which you are assembled, and which, in definingyour powers, designates the objects to which your atten-tion is to be given. It will be more consistent with those

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

circumstances, and far more congenial with the feelingswhich actuate me, to substitute, in place of a recommen-dation of particular measures, the tribute that is due tothe talents, the rectitude, and the patriotism which adornthe characters selected to devise and adopt them.”

1. How extensive did George Washington believethe powers of the president should be?

2. What, in Washington’s opinion, should be therole of the president? Which branch of govern-ment did he believe should have more power,the executive or the legislative?

Participating in State GovernmentContact your state governmentoffices to find out the followinginformation:

• How are the Democratic and Re-publican electors chosen in your state?

• How and where do the electors cast their ballots for president?

Organize the data chronologically and present your findings in a flowchart or informationalbrochure.


Chapter 8Chapter 8

1. What does the father think is themost important requirement to become president?

2. Does the cartoonmake reference toany of the formalqualifications for the office of thepresident?

3. Do you agree withthe statementmade in the car-toon? Why or whynot?

“This is America, son, where anybody withtwenty million bucks to spend could end

up being President.”

proposals reasons1.2.3.

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Documents

Chapter 8: The Presidency...mal powers of the presidency, view the Democracy in Action Chapter 8 video lesson: The Presidency Chapter Overview Visit the United States Government: Democracy