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Scientific Revolution

Contents

Contents Chapter Focus Section 1 New Scientific Ideas Section 2 Impact of Science Section 3 Triumph of Reason Chapter Assessment

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Chapter Focus (1)

Chapter Focus

•  Conflict Changing views based on science and reason conflict with traditional beliefs. (Section 2) ò

•  Reaction Reason and order are applied to many human endeavors. (Section 3)

Chapter Themes

•  Innovation European interest in science leads to discoveries and ideas based on reason. (Section 1) ò


Chapter Focus (2)

Chapter Focus

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Chapter Focus Transparency

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Chapter Focus (3)

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Section 1-1

Section 1

•  People to Meet Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Isaac Newton, Andreas Vesalius, William Harvey, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, Antoine and Marie Lavoisier ò

•  Places to Locate Poland ò

Setting the Scene

How did scientific thought change during the 1600s?

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•  Terms to Define hypothesis, ellipses, scientific method, calculus, alchemist ò

1 of 21 New Scientific Ideas


Section 1-2

Section 1 Lecture Notes

•  New technology, combined with innovative approaches to seeking knowledge, led to a breakthrough in Western thought. ò

•  At the forefront of this scientific revolution was an astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus.

Introduction 2 of 21

•  In the 1600s a scientific revolution spread throughout Europe. ò

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Section 1-3

Section 1 Lecture Notes 3 of 21


•  Copernicus believed that the earth was round and that it rotated on its axis as it revolved around the sun, which stayed at the center of the universe. ò

•  Copernicus realized that his ideas were revolutionary and even dangerous.

A Scientific Revolution •  Copernicus started his scientific career in

1492 at the University of Kraków in Poland. ò


Section 1-4



•  The Polish scientist spent more than 30 years writing his treatise in private. ò

•  Friends who realized the significance of Copernicus’s ideas helped publish his work just before his death.

A Scientific Revolution (cont.) •  Disputing or questioning traditional views

about the universe could mean harsh consequences. ò


Section 1-5



•  Copernicus had based his hypotheses, or theories that attempt to explain a set of facts, on study and observations–but did not have the mathematics to prove them. ò

•  In the late 1500s, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe set up an observatory to study heavenly bodies and accumulated much data on planetary movements.

New Theories About the Universe •  Other scientists took Copernicus’s ideas

and explored even further into a scientific understanding of the universe. ò

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Section 1-6



•  Using mathematical formulas, Kepler did show that the planets revolve around the sun.

•  Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer and mathematician, later used Brahe’s data with the goal of providing mathematical proof for Copernicus’s hypotheses. ò

New Theories About the Universe (cont.)


Section 1-7



•  Kepler proved that the planets move in oval paths called ellipses–not circles as Copernicus had thought.

•  His findings also proved wrong some of Copernicus’s views. ò

New Theories About the Universe (cont.)


Section 1-8



•  Kepler was a Protestant and did not have to fear the Catholic Church. ò

•  His Catholic contemporary, the Italian mathematician Galileo Galilei, did face opposition from the Church.

Challenging the Church •  Kepler challenged the teachings of many

academic and religious leaders. ò


Section 1-9



•  In 1632 Galileo published his ideas. An outraged Pope Urban VIII demanded that he come to Rome and stand trial.

Challenging the Church (cont.) •  In 1609 Galileo built his own telescope, and

through observations of Jupiter and its moons, he became convinced that the Copernican theory was correct. ò


Section 1-10



•  He helped to establish the universal laws of physics such as the law of inertia, which specifies that an object remains at rest or in straight-line motion unless acted upon by an external force.

Challenging the Church (cont.) •  Facing possible torture and death, Galileo

publicly withdrew many of his writings but continued to work privately. ò


Section 1-11



•  To Bacon, truth resulted only from a thorough investigation of evidence. He helped develop what is now known as the scientific method.

New Ways of Thinking •  Philosophers such as Francis Bacon and

René Descartes incorporated scientific thought into philosophy. ò

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Section 1-12



•  He saw mathematics as the perfect model for clear and certain knowledge. ò

•  Descartes believed he had found one self-evident truth in the statement “I think, therefore I am.”

New Ways of Thinking (cont.) •  Descartes, the inventor of analytical

geometry, believed that truth must be reached through reason. ò


Section 1-13



•  Newton used the scientific method as he studied science and mathematics.

Newton’s Universe •  Born in 1642, the English scientist Isaac

Newton would become one of the most influential figures in modern science. ò


Section 1-14



•  To prove his theory of gravity, Newton developed calculus, a system of mathematics that calculates changing forces or quantities.

Newton’s Universe (cont.) •  In 1687 he published his theories of gravity

and other scientific concepts in his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, often called Principia. ò


Section 1-15



•  Most knowledge of anatomy had come from the work of Galen, an ancient Greek.

Studying the Natural World •  As astronomy, philosophy, and mathematics

advanced, so too did the sciences of anatomy and chemistry. ò


Section 1-16



•  While he did discover the existence of blood within the arteries, he also believed that the liver digested food and processed it into blood.

Studying the Natural World (cont.) •  Roman law forbade the dissection of human

corpses, forcing Galen to formulate theories by dissecting dogs and apes. ò


Section 1-17



•  This limitation, however, did not stop Andreas Vesalius, a French medical student, from making groundbreaking discoveries in anatomy. ò

•  In 1543 he published his work in On the Structure of the Human Body.

Investigating the Human Body •  French lawmakers in the 1500s also

considered dissecting human bodies illegal. ò

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Section 1-18



•  English scientist Robert Hooke made a more important biological discovery–the cell.

Investigating the Human Body (cont.) •  Almost 100 years later, English physician

William Harvey concluded that blood circulates throughout the body, pumped by the heart and returning through the veins. ò


Section 1-19



•  In 1627 the chemistry of the day was alchemy–trying to turn a base metal, such as lead, into gold. ò

•  Boyle criticized alchemists, people who practiced alchemy, and their belief that all matter was made up of four elements: earth, fire, water, and air.

Experimenting With Chemistry •  Robert Boyle was primarily responsible for

taking chemistry from its mystical and unscientific origins and establishing it as a pure science. ò


Section 1-20



•  He defined an element as a material that could not be broken down by chemical means. ò

•  In 1774 English chemist and clergyman Joseph Priestley discovered the existence of oxygen.

Experimenting With Chemistry (cont.) •  In Boyle’s book The Skeptical Chymist,

published in 1661, he proved air could not be a basic element because it was a mixture of several elements. ò


Section 1-21



•  In France, Antoine Lavoisier discovered the nature of combustion, which results from the chemical union of a flammable material with oxygen. ò

•  Marie Lavoisier contributed significantly to her husband’s work. She learned English and Latin so that she could translate scientific essays and books for him.

•  His study of the properties of carbon dioxide led to his invention of carbonated drinks. ò

Experimenting With Chemistry (cont.)


Section 1-Assessment

Section 1 Assessment

What was the scientific revolution? How did it change the way Europeans viewed the universe and the workings of the human body?

It was the use of reason, mathematics, and technology to understand the physical universe; they relied less on traditional authority, religion, and magic and turned to experimentation, individual experience, and the scientific method to understand the world around them.

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6


Section 2-1

Section 2

•  Terms to Define natural law, natural rights, pacifism, deism ò

Setting the Scene

What effects did changes in scientific thought have on thinking in other fields?

•  People to Meet Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Hugo Grotius, William Penn ò

•  Places to Locate Pennsylvania ò


1 of 14 Impact of Science


Section 2-2



•  In England Charles II established the Royal Society of London in 1662. ò

•  In 1666 Louis XIV of France supported the founding of the French Academy of Science. ò

•  These societies provided financial support to scientists and published scientific books and journals.

Introduction •  Monarchs helped the new sciences by

supporting scientific academies, observatories, and museums. ò


Section 2-3



•  Political philosophers believed in the idea of natural law, or a universal moral law that, like physical laws, could be understood by applying reason.

Exploring Political Ideas •  Scientific thought and method profoundly

influenced political theory. ò


Section 2-4



•  England was divided by people who wanted the king to have absolute power and those who thought the people have the right to govern themselves.

Exploring Political Ideas (cont.) •  Two English philosophers, Thomas

Hobbes and John Locke, grappled with their ideas of natural law and government during the 1600s as England struggled through a civil war. ò


Section 2-5



•  In his book Leviathan, published in 1651, Hobbes wrote about a state in which people lived without government. ò

•  The book showed how “nasty, brutish, and short” life in such a world would be.

Hobbes Explores Government •  Thomas Hobbes used the idea of natural

law to argue that absolute monarchy was the best form of government since people were violent by nature. ò


Section 2-6



•  In this way, they would be governed by a monarch who would protect them and keep their world peaceful. ò

•  According to Hobbes, people generally do not have the right to rebel against their government, no matter how unjust it might be.

Hobbes Explores Government (cont.) •  Hobbes believed that people should form a

social contract, an agreement to give up their freedom and live obediently under a ruler. ò

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Section 2-7



•  He also believed that people have natural rights, or rights belonging to all humans from birth, including life, liberty, and property.

Locke Offers a Different View •  John Locke agreed with Hobbes that

government was based on a social contract, but he believed that people in a state of nature are reasonable and moral. ò


Section 2-8



•  Locke argued that if a government failed in its basic duty of protecting natural rights, people had the right to overthrow the government.

Locke Offers a Different View (cont.) •  In Two Treatises of Government, Locke

stated that people created a government to protect natural rights and that government functioned best when its powers were limited. ò


Section 2-9



•  Thomas Jefferson based much of the Declaration of Independence on Locke’s ideas about the social contract and the right of people to overthrow an unjust government.

•  Locke’s writings were widely read throughout Europe and the Americas. ò

Locke Offers a Different View (cont.)


Section 2-10



•  In the 1600s several people made the first attempts to create a body of international law.

Reason Influences Law •  Incorporating scientific reason or reasoned

thought in applying the law helped to end unjust trials as lawmakers placed less value on hearsay and confessions made under torture. ò


Section 2-11



•  He believed that one body of rules could reduce the dealings of governments to a system of reason and order.

Reason Influences Law (cont.) •  Hugo Grotius, a Dutch jurist, called for an

international code based on natural law. ò


Section 2-12



•  Penn advocated an assembly of nations committed to world peace.

•  In the American colonies, William Penn, founder of the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania, believed in pacifism, or opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes. ò

Reason Influences Law (cont.)

8


Section 2-13



•  In the 1700s a new religious philosophy called deism swept through Europe and America. ò

•  Deists believed in God but often denounced organized religion, declaring that it exploited people’s ignorance and superstitions.

Examining Religion •  Many upper and middle-class Europeans

turned away from traditional religious views, and Europe became a more secular society. ò


Section 2-14



•  Its followers asserted the rightness of humanity’s place in an orderly universe.

Examining Religion (cont.) •  Deism was intended to be a simpler and

more natural religion based on reason and natural law. ò




Contrast Hobbes’s views and Locke’s views.

Hobbes argued that people need absolute governments to prevent chaos. Locke argued that people may overthrow any government that denies them their natural rights.

End of Section 2



Section 3-1

Section 3

•  Terms to Define philosophe, salon, enlightened despot, classicism, metaphysics, romanticism ò

Setting the Scene

What factors helped Enlightenment ideas to spread throughout Europe?

•  People to Meet Madame de Pompadour, Denis Diderot, Baron de Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, John Wesley ò

•  Places to Locate Paris ò


1 of 24 Triumph of Reason


Section 3-2



•  As a result, the period in Europe from the late 1600s through the 1700s came to be called the Age of Enlightenment. ò

•  Enlightenment thinkers saw the universe as a machine governed by fixed laws, and also believed in progress–that the world could be improved.

Introduction •  Europe’s new thinkers believed that their

scientific approach helped illuminate and clarify both the natural world and the study of human behavior. ò

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Section 3-3



•  Most philosophes believed in Locke’s political philosophy and Newton’s scientific theories. ò

•  They believed in both freedom of speech and the individual’s right to liberty.

Spreading Ideas •  The thinkers of the Enlightenment who

spread these new ideas came to be called philosophes, the French word for “philosopher.” ò


Section 3-4



•  Wealthy and influential women such as Madame de Pompadour, perhaps the most celebrated, ran many of the popular salons.

Activity in Paris •  France was the most active center of ideas.

In Paris, the new intellectuals enjoyed gatherings called salons held in the homes of wealthy patrons. ò


Section 3-5



•  Its editor, Denis Diderot, devoted much of his life to the project and eventually ended up in prison because portions of the work criticized the Church and the government. ò

•  The Catholic Church banned the Encyclopédie, but it was still widely read and its ideas spread all through Europe.

Activity in Paris (cont.) •  In 1751 the Encyclopédie was published

in 28 volumes covering everything known about the sciences, technology, and history in more than 3,000 pages with many illustrations. ò


Section 3-6



•  His masterwork, The Spirit of Laws, appeared in two volumes in 1748 and promoted the idea of separating governmental powers.

Montesquieu •  A contributor to the Encyclopédie and one

of the most learned of the philosophes in political matters was Charles-Louis de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu. ò


Section 3-7



–  the legislative branch, which made the laws; ò –  the executive branch, which enforced laws; ò –  the judicial branch, which interpreted laws. ò

Montesquieu (cont.) •  Montesquieu believed that the powers of

government should be divided equally among three branches of government: ò

•  His work influenced the writing of the constitutions in many countries, including the United States.


Section 3-8



•  Candide, his most celebrated satire, like many of his other works, challenged the notion that everything that happens is for the best in “the best of all possible worlds.”

Voltaire •  François-Marie Arouet, who went by the

pen name Voltaire, is perhaps the most celebrated of the philosophes. ò

10


Section 3-9



•  He eventually was exiled to England from France for his satire mocking the Church and the royal court of France. ò

•  Voltaire is credited with saying, “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

Voltaire (cont.) •  In his youth, Voltaire twice served time in

the Bastille, the notorious prison in Paris. ò


Section 3-10



•  In A Vindication of the Rights of Women, British author Mary Wollstonecraft favored equal education for women and men so that both sexes could contribute equally to society.

Women and the Enlightenment •  Women generally did not participate in

public life on an equal basis with men. Women’s rights were limited to home and family during the Enlightenment. ò


Section 3-11



•  Prussia’s Frederick II, the most famous of the enlightened despots, ruled as an absolute monarch. Yet he believed that as king, he was the “first servant of the state.”

Some Leaders Initiate Reform •  Some European monarchs became

enlightened despots, or rulers who sought to govern by Enlightenment principles while maintaining their royal powers. ò


Section 3-12



•  Empress Maria Theresa of Austria disagreed with the secularism of the Enlightenment but introduced far-reaching humanitarian reforms, including freeing the serfs.

Some Leaders Initiate Reform (cont.) •  Catherine II of Russia was more inclined

to praise Enlightenment values than practice them. ò


Section 3-13



•  Many monarchs backed away from Enlightenment ideals when they realized their own positions would be threatened by giving too much power to their subjects.

•  Her son, Joseph II, carried the reforms even further, but his brother and successor, Leopold II, revoked most of the changes. ò

Some Leaders Initiate Reform (cont.)


Section 3-14



•  Jacques-Louis David, who painted the Oath of the Horatii and other works, revealed a balance and simplicity that resulted in monumental images.

Classical Movements •  Writers, artists, and architects strove to

achieve the ideals of Greek and Roman classicism, which to them represented the ultimate order and reason. ò

11


Section 3-15



•  Evolving in the 1700s, the piano and the violin were perfected at the same time, changing the sound of music.

Classical Movements (cont.) •  Music made a transition from merely

supporting religious services and dance and opera companies, to being an “art” in its own right. ò


Section 3-16



•  European musicians of this era included: ò

Classical Movements (cont.) •  As composers grouped similar instruments,

they laid the foundation for chamber music and the modern orchestra. ò

–  Johann Sebastian Bach ò –  George Frideric Handel ò –  Joseph Haydn ò –  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.


Section 3-17



•  Some saw the structured and ordered view of the universe as overly rational and devoid of emotion and feeling.

Enlightenment Opponents •  Not everyone agreed with the ideas of

the Enlightenment. ò


Section 3-18



•  Rousseau believed that human beings were naturally good but that civilization and institutions were corrupting.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau •  During the 1700s, French philosopher

Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized what he saw as his era’s excessive reliance on reason and claimed that people should rely more on instinct and emotion. ò


Section 3-19



•  Therefore, the people had the right to remove the “chains” of an oppressive society and to create a new government devoted to the common good.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (cont.) •  In 1762 Rousseau published his most

famous work, The Social Contract, which argued that sovereignty, or the right to rule, rested in the people. ò


Section 3-20



Jean-Jacques Rousseau (cont.) •  His basis of government was a social

contract through which people gave up their individual rights to the “general will,” the will of the majority.

12


Section 3-21



•  Kant believed that reason could not answer the problems of metaphysics–the branch of philosophy that deals with spiritual issues such as the existence of God. ò

•  In Critique of Pure Reason, published in 1781, Kant argued that reality consisted of separate physical and spiritual worlds and that the methods of knowing varied greatly in these two realms.

Immanuel Kant •  Another critic of the Enlightenment was the

German thinker Immanuel Kant. ò


Section 3-22



•  In England, John Wesley led a movement called Methodism, which stressed the value of personal religious experience. ò

•  Hasidism, which promoted mysticism and religious zeal–as opposed to an emphasis on external ritual–spread among Jews.

Religious Movements •  In Germany, Count von Zinzendorf

established the Moravian Brethren, which emphasized the emotional and mystical side of Christianity. ò


Section 3-23



•  As people questioned the philosophies of the Enlightenment, classicism in the arts gave way to romanticism–a cultural movement that celebrated emotion and the individual.

Religious Movements (cont.) •  All of these religious movements rejected

reason in favor of an enthusiastic faith. ò


Section 3-24



•  The Enlightenment and its tranquil world faded as a new period of turmoil and revolution approached.

Religious Movements (cont.) •  Inspired by new ideas that had evolved, the

lower classes began to demand more rights. ò




How do John Locke’s ideas about government compare with those of Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

Both believed in a social contract and that people had a right to overthrow an unjust government; Locke stressed the natural rights of the individual that government had to protect, while Rousseau emphasized individual acceptance of the will of the majority.

End of Section 3


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Chapter Assessment (1)

Chapter Assessment

How did classical art reflect the values of the Enlightenment? Give examples to support your answer.

It emphasized form and order. Examples of how classical art reflecting the values of the Enlightenment: classical architects' preference for squares and circles rather than elaborate swirls, or David's concern for simplicity of form.

1 of 10



People began to rely on observation, reason, and the scientific method instead of superstition.

Why do you suppose a belief in witches and ghosts largely became a thing of the past in Europe after the period of the Enlightenment?

2 of 10 Chapter Assessment



Were the 1700s an era of optimism or pessimism? Explain.

Some may argue that it was an optimistic age because people looked favorably on new ideas and believed reason could provide the answers to many of life's problems.




Do scientific laws apply to human society in the way that they apply to the physical universe? Why or why not?

Some may argue that human emotions and actions vary too much to be predictable by law.




Why were the enlightened despots unable to carry out thorough reforms?

Many nobles felt threatened by the powers monarchs were giving common people, and so they frustrated reform efforts.




Has science fulfilled the promise of progress that it seemed to hold in the 1700s? Why or why not?

Some may argue that scientific breakthroughs have enhanced the quality of life, others that new technologies have threatened environmental viability.


14



How did the Scientific Revolution change the ways in which Europeans investigated the natural world?

The Scientific Revolution changed the ways in which Europeans investigated the natural world by relying on observation, reason, and the scientific method instead of tradition.




Catholic Bishop Bossuet said that the skepticism of the philosophes was an “unending error, a risk-all boldness, a deliberate dizziness, in a word, a pride that cannot accept its proper cure, which is legitimate authority.” Explain the bishop's view in your own words. What does he mean by “legitimate authority”?

The philosophes should give up their questioning and accept the views of the Church, the “legitimate authority.”




What religious movements formed as a reaction to the ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers? Why?

Methodism, the Moravian Brethren, and Hasidism formed. Each emphasized personal faith as opposed to emphasis on reason.



Chapter Bonus

10 of 10

In 1611 English poet John Donne wrote that “new philosophy calls all in doubt.” Similarly, in our times, many people are troubled by the destabilizing effects of new scientific methods. What are three areas of scientific research today that some people find unsettling?

Some possible areas of scientific research today that some people find unsettling are manipulation of human reproduction and tinkering with genetic information.

Chapter Bonus Question

Chapter Assessment

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Historical Significance (1)

How did the Scientific Revolution of the 1600s and 1700s transform European society?

By introducing a philosophy of knowledge based on observation, experiment, and reason, the Scientific Revolution challenged faith and traditional ideas in many areas.

Historical Significance 1 of 2

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Historical Significance (2)

What impact has the growth of science had on the world today?

New scientific discoveries and new applications continue to challenge accepted ideas and introduce new ways of life.

Historical Significance 2 of 2


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Chapter 20 Disc 3 Side A

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Side 1 Chapter 10

The Scientific Revolution

Turning Points in World History

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ABCNews - Objectives

•  Identify developments during the Age of Enlightenment. ò

•  Recognize the role of the scientific revolution in shaping the world as we know it today.

Objectives

•  Understand events that led to a scientific revolution. ò

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Side 1 Chapter 10 The Scientific Revolution


ABCNews - Discussion (1)

Discussion


It was a new way of thinking that arose in the seventeenth century in stark contrast to traditional thinking, which was based on appeal to authority or mysticism.

What was the scientific revolution? When did it occur?




Discussion


It is the use of empirical processes, such as observation, hypothesis, and experimentation, to test hypotheses.

What is scientific method?


16



Discussion

Principal figures included Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton. They were responsible respectively for: the assertion that the sun was the center of the solar system; an elaboration on Copernicus’ views and perfection of the telescope; and a theory of gravity and development of calculus.

Who were some of the principal figures of the Scientific Revolution? What contributions did each make?




ABCNews - Events (1)

Events of the Period 1607 Captain John Smith organizes the

first permanent English settlement in the Americas at Jamestown. ò

1611 Shakespeare writes The Tempest. ò

1648 Taj Mahal completed in India.

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ABCNews - Events (2)

Events of the Period

1683 William Penn signs a treaty with the Delaware people and makes payment for the lands that will become Pennsylvania. ò

1692 Witchcraft trials are held at Salem, Massachusetts.

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ABCNews - Related Frames Contents

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Fact Files Three Important European Thinkers (Frame 48423) What is the Scientific Method? (Frame 48428)

The Telescope (Frame 48430) Galileo’s Trial (Frame 48431)

Inventions by Thomas Edison (Frame 48433)




Three Important European Thinkers Italian artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) designed numerous machines, some of which were a helicopter and a parachute. Neither, however, were built in his time.

Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) is credited for his pioneering role in the development of wireless telegraphy, also known as radio.

Polish-born French scientist Marie Curie (1867-1934) was awarded two Nobel Prizes for her contributions to the study of radioactivity. She was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.

FACT FILE:

ABCNews - Related Frame (1)




FACT FILE:



What is the Scientific Method?

•  Careful observations are made. •  Theories (hypotheses) are made based on

observations. •  Hypotheses are tested in various experiments

and conditions.


The scientific method is a series of steps taken to prove a scientific law.

17


FACT FILE:



The Telescope

Galileo’s invention of the telescope in the 1600s enhanced scientists’ abilities to observe the universe.



FACT FILE:



Galileo’s Trial With the use of his telescope, Galileo discovered moons that revolved around a planet other than the earth. His observations were contrary to the beliefs of the Catholic Church.

Galileo published his ideas, but his book was banned shortly after. He was charged with heresy.



FACT FILE:



Inventions by Thomas Edison

Among some of Thomas Edison’s inventions are the record player, a machine for making motion pictures, and the lightbulb.


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Section Focus Transparency 20-1


Section Focus Transparency 20-1 (Answers)


1. observation 2. change it,

discard it, or let it stand as is

3. an unproved

theory





1. that he might have taken scientific experimentation and/or theory to another level

2. that he built

upon the work of other scientists, and that without them, he would not have been able to develop his work

3. gravity





1. Corinthian 2. Ionic 3. Answers will

vary.

19


Chapter Time Line

Chapter Time Line


1628 William Harvey discovers the circulation of blood.

ò 1690 John Locke advocates government

by “social contract.” ò

1751 Denis Diderot publishes the Encyclopédie.

1543 Nicolaus Copernicus presents a new view of the universe.

ò


Section 1 Time Line

Section 1 Time Line


1687 Isaac Newton publishes the Principia. ò

1774 Joseph Priestley discovers oxygen.

1632 Galileo Galilei stands trial for his ideas. ò


Section 2 Time Line

Section 2 Time Line


1662 Charles II establishes the Royal Society of London.

ò 1700s Deism becomes popular in

Europe and America.

1651 Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan. ò


Section 3 Time Line

Section 3 Time Line


1748 Baron de Montesquieu publishes The Spirit of Laws.

ò 1780s Joseph II of Austria introduces

Enlightenment reforms.

c. 1736 John Wesley promotes religious revival in Great Britain.

ò

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