37

CHAPTER II

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH

We have seen that English for science is an important

branch of ESP which covers the areas of English for Academic

Purposes (EAP} and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP}.

We have also distinguished ESP from General Purpose English

(GPE} especially in the way their purpose is defined, and the

manner of their implementation. The English needed by a

particular group of learners could, therefore, be identified

by analysing the linguistic characteristics of English

employed in their specialist area of study. This is exactly

what we are going to do in this chapter. However, we are not

only going to specify the formal features of ESP but also see

how sentences are combined in discourse to produce meaning

and how statements are related to each other in the text.

Also, we will make use of empirical methodology and analyse

students' biological texts in order to identify the

vocabulary and structures more frequently used in English for

biological science.

This chapter, therefore,

scientific English used in the

attempts to characterize

English biological science

texts. Vocabulary of biological science, sentence patterns,

types of sentences and clauses within the sentence are

analysed on the basis of their frequency of occurrence in

the biological text. The reasons for using these linguistic

categories in biological science are identified. We also

discuss the utility of register analysis in language teaching

38

and underline some of the features of English for biological

science so that ES teachers and biology students can

concentrate on the most relevant and most frequently used

features. The description of the language used in biological

science contains information on vocabulary and grammar used

in the biological text analysed. This description can be

applied to the particular needs of biology students. These

students are taught science in their mother tongue (Arabic),

but they need access to works reported in English used for

biological science.

"Learning a language is not merely a matter of learning

sentence patterns and vocabulary but must also involve

understanding of how people use these linguistic forms in

order to communicate" (Mountford: 1977). These forms are

helpful in making different kinds of statements and producing

continuous pieces of discourse. This can be applied in

language teaching to activate students discourse competence

and develop an understanding of how this subject matter is

expressed through English, that is, to combine language and

subject matter in meaningful communication.

The science students' problems with regard to English

is not so much one of specialist terminology as of the kind

of vocabulary, grammar, syntax and idiomatic devices that are

generally used in scientific English. "The chief difficulty

becomes obvious when they know the specialist terms but

cannot understand or formulate statements in English in which

those terms occur" (Close: 1966: 3)

39

We proceed now to discuss the nature of scientific

style which is concerned with clear logical thinking. It

prefers brevity and exactness. The function of scientific

prose is to "convey logical ordered ideas, exactly,

concisely, and clearly" (Peter: 1963: 36). Precision is a

special quality in scientific writing. A scientist usually

makes sure of the meaning of every word due to his accuracy

of thought. "Consciseness requires not that the writer makes

all his sentences short, or that he avoids all details and

treats his subjects only as outline, but that every word

tells" (Peter: 1968: 41).

Simplicity eradicates most of the grammatical faults.

Simple scientific language enforces accurate thinking. A

scientific style is usually formal. It may .cause difficulty

at first to any one who is not accustomed to it but greatly

assists effective communication between scientists and

engineers; no ambiguity is allowed for. Moreover, "facts

will not be questionable and are not capable of more than one

interpretation" (Mehdi: 1987: 119). In addition, we shall

have three things to distinguish in every physical science:

the series of facts that constitute the science; the ideas

that call the facts to mind; and the words that express them.

A scientist accepts as facts only impersonal, objective

statements. This impersonal attitude is reflected in the way

scientists express themselves and particularly in the kinds

of grammatical

prefer. The

structures and sentence patterns which

use of impersonal statements is one of

they

the

40

linguistic consequences of the methodology of science which

demands objectivity, systematic investigation, and exact

measurement. one of the grammatical features is the use of

the passive construction, e.g.,

The mixture was poured ... instead of

We poured the mixture .. .

emphasises what happens to things. What I, The passive

personally,

description

expressed.

do is not regarded as important. It enables a

to be made impersonal without an agent being

In ES, a noun is also used in preference to a verb and

this avoids an expression of personal activity;

e.g. '

On completion of the experiment ... instead of

When we had completed the experiment.

2.1 Features of scientific Discourse

All scientific discourse is carefully structured to

ensure effective communication. It generally has a title,

abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results,

discussion, summary, and reference sections. The purpose of

writing the title at an early stage is to clarify the

author's aim and intentions. It accurately reflects the

content of the article. The title is the reader's first

encounter with the paper and so it

The abstract appears at the head of

should be informative.

the article. It is

valuable for the reader. It gives an idea about the whole

41

article. The abstract, being brief and accurate, saves the

readers time and effort. Then, the scientist introduces what

he is going to do, how and why, the materials he is going to

use in his experiments and the methods applied to arrive at

his results. Finally, he discusses his results and arrives

at his findings and conclusions. This logical organization

in scientific writing is part of the scientific way of

thinking which is concise, accurate, factual, logical and

well-organised. This logical way of thinking is reflected in

the use of language.

Scientific discourse also employs non-verbal items like

charts, graphs, tables, signs, diagrams, and symbols to serve

several communicative functions:

a. These devices support the scientist's conclusions and

clarify his own thinking and communicate information.

A table or a figure is a unit of communication

completely informative by itself. It carries messages

clearly and shows data meaningfully. It also reveals

comparisons or changes.

b. Tables and figures describe an experiment and its

purpose in a highly abbreviated way.

c. Figures reveal trends arid relationships. Graphs can

present precise values. Tables and figures reveal

purpose and results at a glance. Each table has a

title. The title announces the purpose of the table.

It is indicative of the experimental design. Using

42

non-verbal items, the scientist can economize on space by

eliminating repetition of words.

These i terns are dictated by the need for extreme

brevity, condensation and universality of the scientific way

of thinking which is reflected through the use of tables,

lines, curves, histograms, figures and symbols. Therefore,

it must be part of the language teacher's job to explain the

function of symbols and formulate in the text or give

practice in-transferring from the written to the spoken form

or vice versa. A student can also learn abbreviations

without much trouble. He has to translate them and should be

given opportunities to practice this skill during note-taking

exercises.

Linguistic Features of Discourse in Biological Sciences

We have carried out an analysis of vocabulary and

sentence patterns, types of sentences and clauses within the

sentence in English for biological science, with the help of

a corpus of 1659 words forming 19 paragraphs, one paragraph

from each section in the textbook, selected from one of the

biology texts written in English and studied in Arabic by

first- year biology students 1 namely "Biology Today" 1 by David

Kirk. The paragraphs were carefully selected on the basis of

content. They were taken mostly from the methodology section

of each chapter. We have not taken any paragraph from the

introductions because their content is not the characteristic

style of ES which we are analysing.

43

Selected paragraphs from the translated version are

also analysed later to identify some of the issues and

problems in the translation of scientific texts into Arabic

(see Chapter Three). The main motive behind text analysis is

to make the ES course more relevant to biology students'

learning needs. The aim is to produce a syllabus which gives

high priority to the language forms biology students at a

given level meet in their science studies and, thereby, give

low priority to forms they do not come across. The English

version of the biological text (BT) studied by biology

students in Arabic will be analysed in an attempt to

establish the characteristics of English used in this text

and to see how it matches with the character is tics of ES.

The frequencies of occurrences and percentages of the

analysed lexical and syntactic categories are given in

tabular forms. This analysis can help us understand why

certain lexical and syntactic categories are most frequently

used in English for biological science.

2.2 Lexical Analysis

2.2.1 Content versus Function Words 1

The number of content words in the BT corpus 2 is 1127

{68%) and function words 532 (32%). The high frequency of

1. Content words include adjectives, nouns, verbs and adverbs. Function words include prepositions, articles, pronouns, conjunctions, and negative particles.

2. The text analysed is Biology Today by O.L. Kirk {1980).

44

content words in BT is due to the fact that biologists

usually deal with concrete objects and substances.

2.2.2 Technical Terms:

The vocabulary of scientific English may include words

which are never used outside the subject or field in

question. In science, new terms are invented to define new

phenomena and to explain new things and processes. Each

scientific subject has its store of terms with precise,

narrow meanings. Examples of terms related to the field of

biology are, photosynthesis, phylum, chlorophyta, agents,

species, fertility, algae, vegetation, gametes, zygote,

vesicle, host, cyanobacteria. chlamedomonas.

The number of nouns in our BT is 600 (36%) of the total

number of words in the corpus. Only 143 ( 24%) of nouns,

specific to the subject matter of biology, are part of the

learning of the biology discipline itself. A biology student

studying let's say the circulation of blood will be

confronted with items such as atrium, ventricle, arteriole,

and venule. The students of biology already have the

knowledge of these terms in their native language (Arabic).

Therefore it is helpful if the ES teacher gives their meaning

in Arabic. The ES teacher has to cooperate with subject

teachers and to be prepared to familiarize himself with the

rudiments of the subject concerned.

2.2.3 Sub-Technical Terms

Sub-technical terms consist of those words which are

45

/

not specific to a subject speciality but which occur

regularly in scientific and technical texts, e.g.,

reflection, tendency, isolation, and density. They form

about 457 (76%) of the total number of nouns in the BT

analysed. These will have priority in the language

programme. They are commonly met in general English but they

take a specialized meaning within a scientific and technical

context, e.g., cycle (its use in blood cycle).

2.2.4 Compounding

A biologist also uses compound nouns. This is related

to the way of scientific thinking because a scientist usually

tends to express his ideas accurately and in a brief

condensed way. So, instead of saying: transmission of virus

by seed; he will say virus seed transmission. Similarly, a

disease which is caused by a fungus is a fungus disease and a

tube used for performing tests is a test-tube.

In the biological text analysed, noun compounds formed

by combination with other parts of speech are 106 (18%) of

the total number of nouns in the corpus. The following types

of noun modification are found in the BT corpus:

i) Adj + N = 61 (57%), e.g.

Protective shell, productive system, cellular level.

organizational ladder, green algae, endocytic vesicle,

contractible cells, parastic fungi.

10% of these are adjectivals formed

addition of ing form (verbal Noun) + N, e.g.,

cells, living cells, living things, dividing

staining prooerties.

by the

resting

lines.

iii)

46

ii) N + ING + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,

life-saving antibiotics, disease-causing bacteria.

N + N = 30 (28%), e.g.,

life-cycle, cell wall, cell shape, kingdom plantae,

carbon cycle, iron pipes, body plan, host organism,

host species, mantle cavity, Hydrogen atoms, energy­

level, sodium-ions, salt crystal, plasma memberance,

electron-pair.

iv) Adj. + N + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,

fresh-water environment, exposed sodium ions.

v) Adj. +Adj. + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,

microscopic unicellular forms, characteristic molliscan

features.

vi) Adj. +Adj. (- ed form) + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,

negatively charged ends, highly organized organelles.

vii) N + N + N = 4 (4%), e.g.,

sodium Chlorine ions, energy-level needs, life support

system, electron-configuration model.

2.2.5 Adjectives:

Adjectives constitute 237 (14%) of vocabulary in the

biological text analysed. A biologist, like any other

scientist, usually uses adjectives for describing things to

indicate their shapes, measurements, properties, qualities or

conditions, e.g., round, sguare, long, short, heavy, light,

47

rough, smooth, dry and wet. In science adjectives are not

used for decoration and ornament because a scientist is

usually objective and not subjective in his thinking. This

is reflected through the use of his words which are largely

influenced by his main concern to give a clear, accurate and

a precise description of his subject matter. He uses his

words as tools for exact and logical communication. A

scientist is not influenced by literary sophistication,

figurative language, or his feelings and emotions at the

moment. He prefers to describe a colour by stating its

wavelengths and intensities. He accepts as facts only

impersonal, objective statements about things which can be

seen by any observer, e.g.,

green vain, yellow spots, red algae, flexible

particles, heal thy plants, obvious effect,

cylindrical and curved shapes.

The past participle of the verb may function as an

adjectival to qualify a noun and add more information to it

in a descriptive manner, e.g.,

mottled seeds, inflected plants, exposed cloride

ions, charged ends.

Adjectives usually contribute to the clarity of subject

matter. They modify and add information to the noun that

follows, e.g., parastic nitro-organism, organic material.

This condensed way of modification is used for the purpose of

brevity, accuracy and consciseness. Sciences, including

biological science, usually deal with names of different

48

elements and substances. They are usually concerned with

matter, objects and names of scientific concepts like

intensity and processes like germination and transmission.

Proper nouns are also used in scientific texts to refer to

previous works done by researchers and scientists, e.g.,

(Smith, 1972), and (Ross, 1980}. Some of the nouns in

scientific English are derived from Greek, Latin or Arabic,

e.g. '

Oxygen, Hydrogen (Greek)

Carbon, Molecule (Latin)

Alkali (Arabic)

and since science is in a continual process of development,

new expressions are constantly being invented from the

available words for the purpose of communication, e.g., test­

tube from test and tube.

2.2.6 Verbs

The total number of verbs in the biological text

analysed is 211 ( 13%) of the total number of vocabulary in

the corpus. In the biological text analysed, the present

tense forms 78% (165) of the verb tenses in the corpus. 71%

(85) of the main verbs and 88% (80) of the auxiliary verbs in

the biological text are in the present tense. This shows

that most of the verbs used in biological discourse are in

the present tense because biologists, like other scientists,

usually deal with universal statements which are believed to

be true at all times and in all places, e.g.,

Root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil.

49

The verbs react, spoil, corrode, produce, occur, form, takes

place are used in the ES and biological science in particular

statements of function, process, and course of action to

express facts and habitual actions. The verb to be forms are

81% (74) of the auxiliary verbs in the biological text

analysed. The present form of the verb to be (is, are) is

found in sentences that state the laws of science, e.g.,

"stress is proportional to strain". Only 19% (17) of the

verbs in BT are modal auxiliaries. The total number of verbs

in the past tense is 11% (22) of the tenses in the BT corpus.

9% (11) of the main verbs and 12% (11) of the auxiliary verbs

are in the past. They are used when the BT text reviews

previous works experimented in the past, or to report events

and processes. 6% ( 13) of the verbs in . BT may emphasize

activity in progress which is expressed in the continuous

form of the verb. The following table summarizes the

frequencies of verb tenses in the BT analysed.

Table 1 : Verb Tenses in the Text Analysed (BT)

Verb Tenses

Present

Past

Continuous

Perfect

Future

Imperative (instruction)

Ma1n Verbs No. %

85 71

11 9

13 11

5 4

4 3

2 2

100 100

Aux. Verbs Total No. % No. %

80 88 165 78

11 12 22 11

13 6

5 2

4 2

2 1

91 100 21 100

50

We find greater precision in ES because the proper use

of a verb forces the writer to specify the subject and the

object unequivocally. Verbs can be classified into stative

and dynamic. A stative verb is a verb showing state of being

rather than an action, while a dynamic verb is a verb

denoting doing or action rather than state or being. Dynamic

verbs are more frequently used in biological texts because a

biologist, as a scientist, is usually concerned with actions

and processes in his work.

Verbs also can be either transitive or intransitive.

Intransitive verbs are used more frequently than transitive

verbs in the text (BT} analysed. It is often expected that

transitive verbs are more frequent in ES because science

usually deals with actions. Yet, the level of writing in BT

comes to influence the occurrence of these verbs. This is

also due to the high frequency of linking verbs in BT which

do not need the use of objects but complements. Linking

verbs usually indicate a change from one quality to another,

and show the biologist's concern with existence. Table-2

shows the frequency of stativejdynamic and

transitive/intransitive verbs in BT.

51

Table - 2: Stative/Dynamic and Transitive/ Intransitive Verbs in BT

Verbs No. ~ 0

Transitive 72 34

Intransitive 139 66

-------------------------------------------------------------Dynamic 120 57

Stative 91 43

-------------------------------------------------------------2.2.7 Adverbs:

Adverbs of Times form 32% (25) of the total number of

adverbs in the BT corpus. They are first in rank among other

adverbs in a BT because biologists, like other scientists,

usually do their work within the limitation of time. So,

time is very important for them, e.g. "After the seed is

provided with water, warmth, and air, it starts to

germinate". Frequently used adverbs of time in BT corpus

are: always, whenever, sometimes, later, as soon as, while,

shortly and spontaneously. This is unlike social sciences

which are more concerned with events, actions, days, months,

years and centuries. However, variation in frequency of

adverbs among scientific disciplines is expected and it may

be due to the type of language used a product of the

content.

Adverbs of Manner are second in rank among adverbs in

the BT analysed. They form 27% (21) of the total percentage

of adverbs. A biologist uses manner adverbs because he is

usually concerned with how things happen and in what form

52

they exist. Moreover, in scientific enquiry one must be able

to observe and describe accurately. "Oeser iption here

entails: (a} sensory perception; ( b} experiments,

activities, events; (c) characteristics, habits, behaviour,

(d) processes" (Cooper: 1974}. Examples are:

Agents enter the vascular system directly.

These variations would clearly seem to form

genuine causes.

Most frequently used manner adverbs in the BT corpus are:

effectively, normally, efficiently, negatively, positively,

quickly and carefully.

Adverbs of Degree form 15% (12} of the total percentage

of adverbs in BT. Their use in scientific English is to

provide accurate measurements of matter and its properties in

quantitative terms according to length, width, volume,

density and temperature. This requires the use of degree

adverbs, e.g.,

These processes generally operate extremely slowly.

The cavity may be greatly enhanced by agents.

Almost all the drug is excreted in the urine.

The following table summarizes the frequency of adverbs in

the given BT. (Table-3}.

53

Table 3: Frequency of Adverbs in the BT

Adverbs No. % -------------------------------------------------------------Time 25 32

Manner 21 27

Degree 12 15

Place 9 11

Restrictive 8 10

Certainty 3 4

Attitude 1 1

Total 79 100 -------------------------------------------------------------2.2.8 Pronouns:

The total number of pronouns is 6% (95) of the total

number of words in the BT corpus. The most frequently used

among them are the personal pronouns (30%). The pronoun X is

not used because in scientific writing the personality of the

writer is not shown. The use of the pronoun we also shows

that the scientist is objective and impersonal in his

writing. In ES, the pronoun it can be repeated for the

purpose of emphasis. It may, however, be also used to avoid

repetition, e.g.,

The plant begins to grow to its full size.

When it is rna ture enough, it flowers.

Personal pronouns most frequently used in the BT corpus

are: they ( 6) , he ( 1) , we ( 12) , them ( 2) , and it ( 6) .

Demonstrative Pronouns form 18% (17) of the pronouns used in

54

the BT analysed to refer to something already mentioned and

so serve to relate one statement to another, e.g.,

Sometimes seeds are dried at a temperature which is too

high. This has two effects:

The word this is a discourse marker which refers to "too high

temperature". It is used to avoid repetition. The total

number of possessive pronouns is 14% (13). Most frequently

used possessive pronouns are: his ( 4) , their ( 6) , and our

(3). Relative pronouns form 38% (36) of the total number of

pronouns. The frequencies and percentages of pronouns used

in the BT corpus are as follows:

Personal Possessie Demonstrative Relatives

30% (29) 14% (13) 18% (17) 38% (36)

2.2.9 Linking Items

The total number of linking devices in the BT corpus is

6% (91). Relatives (36) were counted with pronouns. If they

are counted with the connectives the percentage of linking

words will be 7%. Connectives are used in biological science

materials to express the logical sequence of actions and

processes. "They are useful in more complex scientific and

technical writing, and play an important role in the

organization of scientific discussions in written English"

(Swales:

according

1971: 125). They

to the notions or

can be grouped into classes

functions they convey in ES.

55

Such classes are ·explicit indicators of the communicative

function of sentences. Besides, "conjunctions act as style

markers. Some individual conjuncts seem to be restricted to

particular varieties of lanuage or occur more commonly in

these varieties" (Greenbaum: 1970: 80}. Conjuncts are

required to connect ideas, processes and actions in a logical

way in every good piece of writing. In science the

organization of writing is very carefuly guided. The

previous statement is logically related to the following one.

The relations between statements in scientific discourse can

be that of summation, contrast, result, cause, similarity,

exemplification and addition, e.g.,

Most plants are antotrophic but the fungi are

heterotrophic. (contrast)

Most species of Euglena are photosynthetic. However,

all species in the genus need to take in at least an

organic substance (contrast).

After describing the complex nutritional possibilities in the

genus Euglena, we can summarize the fact by saying:

Thus, Euglena shows both plant and animal

nutritional characteristics.

The floor of the mouth is lowered and therefore the

volume of the bucca-pharyngeal cavity increases

(result).

Plants can photosynthesize because they possess

chlorophyll. (cause, explanation)

56

Like many insects, mosquitos are liquid feeders.

(similarity)

If dry seeds are planted in a dry soil, for example,

they will not germinate until it rains. (exemplification).

Table 4: Frequency of Linking Devices

Concepts No. %

Result 5 5.50

Contrast 15 16.48

Cause 8 8.80

Comparison 7 7.69

Addition 5 5.50

Exemplification 5 5.50

condition 3 3.29

Similarity 3 3.29

Coordination (and) 40 43.95

Total 91 100.00

2.2.10 Prepositions:

Prepositions form 10% ( 162) of the words in the BT .

corpus. They do not acquire specific meaning in biological

English. However, in ES they are used to express clearly

defined relationships in space between one object and

another, or direction of movement in space or time, e.g. ,

from (5), between (4), at (3}, in (36}, into (12}, on (2},

through ( 1) , outside ( 1) , for ( 5) , towards ( 2) , by ( 9) , to

(14), with (4), of (66}.

57

v 2.3.11 Definite Vs. Indefinite Article:

The definite article is more frequently used in BT than

the indefinite. This may be due to the fact that a

biologist, as a scientist, usually tends to define his terms

for the sake of clarity and certainty. The occurrence of the

definite article is 70% (122) compared to 30% (51) of the

indefinite article. 25% (43) are indefinite articles 'a' and

only 5% (8) are 'an' occurrences.

Table 5 summarizes the frequency of vocabulary in the

BT analysed with their percentages and rank order.

Table 5: Frequency of Vocabulary in BT

Types of Vocabulary No. % Rank

Nouns 600 36 1

Adjectives 237 14 2

Verbs 211 13 3

Articles 173 10 4

Prepositions 162 10 5

Pronouns 95 6 6

Conjuncts 91 5 7

Adverbs 79 5 8

Negative Particles 11 1 9

Total 1659 100

58

2.3 Word Formation:

Affixation:

Suffixes are more frequently used in BT than prefixes.

Suffixes form 92% (406) while prefixes form a merely 8% (37).

Some technical terms in the BT are formed by adding a

prefix to a word root, e.g.,

form - deform, organic - inorganic, plastic -

thermoplastic

The prefixes are useful in making new technical

vocabulary and in the extension of existing ones. In ES,

they are mostly added to words of Greek and Latin origin,

e.g. '

mono-single

poly-many

dermat-skin

monolayer, monochrome

2Qlyvalent, QQlycycle

dermatitis (inflamation of the skin)

The following prefixes are most frequently used in the BT

text with their occurrences. They are used to form nouns:

endo (2}, photo (7), macro (1}, re (1}, non (4), chloro

(1), micro (2}, pino (1), eco (1), cyano (1}, para (1},

di (3), Total 26.

Some prefixes are used to form adjectives:

non ( 1) , auto ( 1) 1 in (1), un (3} 1 rilis (1) 1 di (1),

endo (1}. Total 9.

Others are used to form verbs:

re ( 1}

59

Suffixes are used in the BT to form nouns, adjectives,

and verbs: The total number of noun forming - suffixes is 44%

( 180) . The following are the most frequently used nouns

forming suffixes with their frequencies:

-s (pl.) (110), -ia 1 a (9) 1 -urn (2) 1 -tion (19);

-ness (1) 1 -sion (3) 1 -ity (8), -ist (1},

-ship (1) 1 -ary (1) 1 -th (1), -ient (1),

-ance (4). Total 180.

Adjectives Forming Suffixes form 29% (119} of the total

number of suffixes. Most frequently used suffixes to form

adjectives in BT analysed are:

-ous (6} 1 -ing (13} 1 -ible (2} 1 -ed (22},

-ant (7) 1 -ent (1), -ar (8) 1 -al (22),

-less (1); -ic (12} 1 -cal (2), -er (6),

-ful (2) 1 -able (5} 1 -ian (2}, -ive (5),

-ior (i) 1 -ry (2}. Total 119.

Adverb Forming suffixes are:

-ly (33}, -wards (2). Total 35.

Verbs Forming Suffixes form 72 (18%) of the total number of

suffixes, e.g.,

-ed (past passive) 39; -ing 13, -s 17,

-ize 3. Total 72.

It can be useful, therefore, for a biology student to

guess the meaning of a word by using his knowledge of the

meaning of a prefix or a suffix. There is, however, the

problem of overgeneralization. Having learnt that pre-means

before, the student may apply the rule to inappropriate

examples.

60

2.4 syntax

2.4.1 Sentence Patterns:

Grammar may be used in specific ways in scientific

texts. We must look beyond the grammatical level to see the

function of structure in the text. A Sentence could be

performing an act of definition, classification,

generalization, drawing results and conclusions,. and

hypothesising. The biology student, therefore, has to be

taught how to produce the appropriate form to express a

particular function, and how different functions are linked

together in a text to form larger units (see linking devices,

p.54). It is also important to analyse the sentence patterns

most frequently used in the BT analysed (see Table 6 below).

Table 6: Dominant Sentence Patterns in BT

Sentence Patterns

s v

s v c

s v 0

s v 0 c

Total

No.

5

134

48

24

211

2.4.2 Sentences Classified by Clauses:

%

2

64

23

11

100

Sentences can be classified into simple, compound,

complex and complex compound. Simple sentences form 40% (42)

in the BT corpus, e.g.,

61

A few red algae and an even smaller number of brown

algae have been moderately successful in fresh water.

(Para. 5. s. 1)

A few green algae have succeeded in the sea.

(Para 5.S.3)

Compound sentences in the BT corpus are 10% (11). For

example,

Movement must be ensured by contractile cells, and some

sort of mechanism must exist for coordinating the

activities of the tentacles, mouth, and column. (Para

10.S.2).

Complex sentences in the BT corpus are 40% (42) of the

total number of sentences. However, if we follow Leech's

(1983) classification of the sentences into simple, compound

and complex; and consider the compound-com~lex sentences as

complex sentences only, the total number of complex sentences

in our corpus is 49.52% (52). In this case, complex

sentences are the most frequently used, e.g.,

It is easiest to visualize the common organizational

plan of the diverse mollusc group if we start with a

hypothetical mollusc. (Para 11.S.1).

Compound-complex· sentences are 9. 52% ( 10) .

for example,

consider

Solar energy flows into the cycle continuously to keep

it running, and part of the trapped solar energy is

released at each stage of the cycle in a form that can

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be used to do cellular work. (Para 17.8.3).

2.4.3 Loose, Periodic and Balanced Sentences:

In a loose sentence the main clause comes first and is

followed by its dependent clauses. Loose sentences in the BT

corpus are 54% (28} of the total number of complex sentences,

e.g. '

Each hydrogen atom acts as though its energy-level

needs were satisfied. (Para 13.8.6).

Periodic sentences, that is, sentences in which the main

clause occurs at the end are 46% (24), e.g.,

If a diverse condition persists, the zygote becomes an

inactive, resting cell that waits for better times.

(Para 6. S. 5) .

A balanced sentence is one which consists of sentences of

similar construction and meaning placed side by side,

balancing each other. Our corpus does not have any balanced

sentences.

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Table 7: Frequency of Sentence Types

Sentences No. ~ 0

Simple 42 40

Compound 11 10.48

Complex 42 40

Compound-Complex 1.0 9.52

Loose 28 54

Periodic 24 46

Balanced

2.4.4. Kinds of Sentences:

Sentences may be divided into statements (or

declarative sentences), questions (or interrogative

Table 8: Frequency of Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences in the Corpus

Sentences No. %

1. Declarative

a. Affirmative 92 87

b. Negative 9 9

2 • Interrogative

a. Yes, No 1 1

b. WH

3. Imperative 3 3

4. Exclamatory

Total 105 100

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sentences), commands (or imperative), or (exclamatory

sentences) . The above table shows the frequency of these

sentences in the corpus.

The high frequency of affirmative sentences can be

attributed to the fact that a biologist tends to declare

positively the truth of his statements and makes the

scientific facts clearly known. However, a scientist

sometimes needs to negate his statements, and sometimes to

give instructions using the imperative construction. Though,

this construction is not used for command or request but for

drawing the readers attention to consider, note, and think

about particular scientific processes and phenomenon, e.g.,

Consider what happens when you drop a crystal of table

salt into water. (Para 15.5.1)

Note that particulars absorbed by endocytosis never

actually pass through the memberance at all. (Para 16.5.2

2.4.5 Subordinate/Dependent Clauses

Subordinate clauses can be classified into nominal,

adjectival, and adverbial clauses. The following table shows

that adverbial clauses are the most frequently used among

other types of clauses:

65

Table 9: Frequency of Subordinate Clauses in the BT Corpus

Clauses No. ~ 0

1. Nominal 14 21

2 . Adjectival 16 24

3 . Adverbial 37 55

3.1 Manner 6 16

3.2 Comparison 3 8

3.3 Time 10 27

3.4 Reason 7 19

3.5 Condition 5 14

3.6 Contrast 4 11

3.7 Result 2 5

Total 67 100

The above table shows that adverbial clauses of time,

reason, and manner are most frequently used in the text

analysed because the biologist is usually concerned with what

happend to things, why, how, and at what time.

2.4.6 Shifted (Deviant) Order:

The SPO I CIA 1 order is the unmarked order, i.e. the

natural order that is used when there is no reason to use

some other order. Whereas the 0/C/ASP order is marked, the

marked or derived order is often the less frequent one, and

1. s Subject A Adverb

P Predicate 0 Object C Complement

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one which is stylistically more noticeable.

found in the text analysed are:

Ellipsis:

Marked forms

Ellipsis is used to avoid repetition of words and

structure used elsewhere in the context. It includes the

omission of the relative pronoun which. This kind of

ommission forms 13% (14) of the total number of shifted

orders, e.g.,

The wall covering the visceral mass is called the

mantle. (Para 11.8.4)

The mantle produces the protective shell found in many

molluscs. (Para 11.8.5)

and the omission of the verb "are": 2 examples ( 2%) of this

kind of omission were found in the text analysed, e.g.,

Some bacteria are spherical (cocci), some cylindrical

(rods), and some curved (spirilla). (Para 4.S.3).

Parentheses, dashes, brackets, and commas are used in the BT

analysed to show discontinuity of discourse and to set off

independent clauses from the rest of the sentence. The total

occurrence of sentences used between brackets and commas is

18% (20), 6% (6) of the sentences were used inside brackets,

4% (4) were conjuncts between commas, and 9% (10) were

examples of reference to tables, figures and diagrams, e.g.,

But by and large, the 7, 000 species of green algae

(phylum chlorophyta) have been most successful in, and are

67

the dominant vegetation of, fresh-water environment. (Para

5.8.4)

The use of sentences between brackets and commas in the

above examples is due to the condensation, accuracy and

precision of scientific ideas.

Adverbs used before the verb form 21% (23) of the total

number of deviant orders, e.g.,

The parasitic fungi effectively use the life-support

systems of the host organisms to obtain water and

nutrients. (Para 8.S.1)

Adverbs used before the adjectives form 2% (2) of the total

number of deviant orders in the biological text analysed,

e.g. '

... the mycelia have few adaptations for survival under

truly dry conditions. (Para 7.S.3).

The use of nouns before the adjectives is 1% (1), e.g.,

Surely that was proof enough. (Para 1.8.4).

The use of "even" for restriction is 4% (4), e.g.,

A few red algae and an even smaller number of brown

algae have been moderately successful in fresh-water.

(Para 5.8.1)

Besides, 2 examples (2%) of non-restrictive embedded clauses

were used in the text analysed, e.g.,

Development of ascorcarps and basidiocarps, which

68

represent the most complex forms of structural

organization in fungi, was probably favoured by natural

selection ... (Para 7.P.136)

Phrases at the beginning of the sentences are used for

emphasis. Adverbial phrases of time are most frequently used

among other types of phrases (see Table 10).

Table 10:

Phrases

Time

Place

Degree

Means

Result

Addition

Frequency of the Phrases used Initially in the Text Analysed

No. %

7 33

5 23

3 14

1 5

2 10

2 10

Exemplification 1 5

Total 21 100

Negative adjunct is used to open the sentence, e.g.,

Not all combinations of atoms will form ions of ionic

compound.

Clauses are used at the beginning of the sentence for

emphasis. Table 11 shows that adverbial clauses of time are

most frequently used in this position.

69

Table 11: Frequency of Clauses Used Initially

Clauses No. %

Time 7 35

Condition 2 10

Cause 2 10

Manner 4 20

Contrast 4 20

Comparison 1 5

Total 20 100

Table 12 summarizes the frequency of shifted orders in ,

the biological text analysed.

Deviant Order No. %

1.0 Omission

1.1 Omission of the relative 14 13 pronoun "which"

1.2 Omission of the verb "are" 2 2

2.0 Discontinuity

2.1 The use of parenthesis, dashes, brackets and 20 18 commas

2.2 Adverb before the main 23 18 verb

2.3 Adverb before the adjective 2 2

2.4 Noun before the adjective 1 1

2.5 Even for restriction 4 3

70

Deviant Order

2.6

3.0

4.0

5.0

2.4.7

Non-restrictive embedded clauses

The use of prepositional phrases at the beginning of the sentences

Negative adjunct opens the sentence

The use of adverbial clauses initially in the sentence

Passive vs. Active Construction

No. %

2 2

21 19

1 1

20 18

It is often said that the passive is more frequently

used in ES than the active form. This is because science is

constantly concerned with impersonal activity seen

objectively. However, the biology text, uses the active

(71%) more frequently than the passive. Only 29% (50) of the

verbs in the BT are in the passive form. Apparently, the use

of the active vis-a-vis the passive depends on the level of

writing. In our case the corpus is taken from a textbook

intended for first year biology students. Examples of the

passive construction are:

The fertility of the soil seeds were produced only infection.

is improved. as a result

Mottled of virus

In our BT, sometimes the agent is mentioned {10%). The most

common agents which occur in scientific English writing are

those which tell about the means, methods, and ways of doing

things; e.g.

71

The fertilizer can be distributed by hand. The reaction is helped by using a catalyst.

The occurrence of the passive construction is 25% (53)

compared to 75% (158) of the active construcition.

Scholars and researchers have believed that the passive

is more frequently used than the active. The intention

behind this usage is to make a description impersonal without

an agent being expressed. However, the over use of complex

passive sentences in scientific writing has attracted

considerable critic ism in recent years, and there is now a

marked tendency to avoid them" (Crystal: 1987: 380).

Therefore, it seems that the weight of traditional usage of

the passive is easy to reduce. The abstract, introduction

and results sections prefer the use of active constructions

while in the methods section more passive constructions are

used. This shows that the active is used for clarity and

simplicity as we find in the students textbooks, or as in the

introduction and discussion of results, while the passive is

used in more complex, condensed and specific scientific

writing.

There is no grammatical or discourse structure that can

be identified specifically with biology. There are only two

areas in which the subject influences the language content

viz. , technical vocabulary and a higher proportion of

particular grammatical or structural forms, such as a high

percentage of nominal compounds. When the students enter the

department of biology they find difficulty in the

72

comprehension of the English language text. Besides, this

text is not related to their subject of specialization.

Register analysis, therefore, is important in language

teaching because many people do have an occupational purpose

in learning a foreign language. The older a learner is the

more likely it is that he knows why he is learning and that

the language is needed to help him in his job. The teaching

of English has often been explicitly given for making

scientific information more accessible.

The description of language used by scientists in all

aspects of their work would contain information on the

vocabulary and grammar used in popular and learned articles,

in research proposals, abstracts and even in actual conduct

of research. We can apply this description to the particular

needs of any group of scientific learners. In case of our

group, it consists of students being taught science in their

mother-tongue, but needing access to work reported in English

used for scientific writing. They have to listen to lectures

in English, take notes, and participate in class discussion.

Besides, they need to develop the ability to comprehend the

language of learned articles and abstracts.

is not only restricted to the written

Their knowledge

language. The

vocabulary content may not always need to be technical since

some lexical items might be identifiable with cognate words

in the mother tongue. They would, however, need to be taught

the "operational" (non-technical i terns) vocabulary (Wilkins:

1975: 138). Their major source of information is textbooks.

They will be required to conduct practical work in English

73

and write reports. Their ability has to be productive and

receptive, written and to a lesser extent spoken. Technical

vocabulary may be acquired through the learning of the

subject itself and vocabulary teaching has to concentrate on

non-technical vocabulary.

In teaching non-technical vocabulary, exercises may be

devised to try to exploit the relationships between words.

Students, therefore, need to build up their vocabulary in the

area of their specialism (biology) to enable them to benefit

from their training. It is dangerous to assume that

vocabulary will take care of itself. Moreover, "any analysis

of needs should have as its central point the type of English

which it will be necessary to teach if the learner is to

achieve his purpose. The learner may need to be taught a

certain vocabulary, specific forms and functions, and how

these functions interrelate to produce coherent texts"

(Kennedy and Bolitho: 1984: 18).

English for Science (ES) uses the same structures as

any other kind of English but with a different distributional

pattern. There is, for example, a tendency to use more

complex nominal groups. Also there are no occurrences of

question tag-forms. Vocabulary should be developed along with

other skills that biology students need. The ES teacher may

be unable to understand the vocabulary required by his

students. Biology students, however, believe that language

equals words and that the acquisition of a specialist

vocabulary alone will suffice to gain access to the knowledge

they require.

74

In this chapter we have underlined some of the

features of ES so that ES teacher and biology students can

concentrate on the most relevant ones. ES has certain

distinct characteristics with regard to vocabulary and

syntax; and morphology plays an important part in it. (see

R.A. Close: 1966: 5). But to characterize ES in this way is

to treat scientific discourse merely as exemplification of

the language system, and does little or nothing to indicate

what kind of communication it is (C.J. Brumfit and K.

Johnson: 1981: 125). Thus, language should be presented in

such a way as to reveal its character as communication.

However, we should not deny the utility of register analysis

which has been accepted by researchers since long. The most

frequently used grammatical items in the text analysed are:

Content words vs. function words; sub-technical terms

vs. technical terms, present simple tense vs. other tenses,

dynamic vs. stative verbs; intransitive vs. transitive verbs;

adverbs of time, manner and degree vs. other types of

adverbs; relative pronouns vs. personal, possessive and

demonstrative pronouns; coordinators vs. other liking

devices; definite vs. idefinite articles; nouns, adjectives

and verbs vs. other parts of speech; svc vs. other sentence

patterns; simple and complex vs. compound and compound­

complex sentences; affirmative vs. imperative, interrogative

and exclamatory sentences, adverbial clauses vs. nominal and

adjectival clauses. The use of adverbs before the main verbs

is more frequent among shifted orders.