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CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The review of literature is the exploring phase of research. It helps
the researcher to investigate a specific field of his interest in respect of
researchers that have been conducted in India as well as in abroad. It
provides insight as well as direction in indicating and identifying the
research problem in taking a sample in selecting appropriate methodology
and statistical techniques.
According to J.W. Best "A summary of the writings of recognized
authorities and the previous research provide evidence that the researcher
is familiar with, what is already known and what is still unknown and
untested. Since effective researches are based on past knowledge, this
step helps to estimate the duplication of what has been done and provides
useful hypotheses and helpful suggestions for citing studies and shows
substantial agreement and those that seem to present conflicting
conclusions, help to sharpen and define understanding of existing
knowledge in problem area, provides a background for a research
project."
47
Seeing the importance and quality of academic achievement, the
above field appears to have received attention recently in India. This has
been proved by the four surveys of educational research published by
M.B. Buch and others.
2.1 Studies Conducted in Abroad
Carole Ames, Jennifer Archer (1988), Achievement
goals in the classroom: Student's learning strategies and
motivation process. We studied how specific motivational
process are related to the salience of mastery and performance
goals in actual classroom settings. One hundred seventy-six
students attending a junior high/high school for academically
advanced students were randomly selected from one of their
classes and responded to a questionnaire on their perceptions of
the classroom goal orientation, use of effective learning
strategies, task choices, attitudes and causal attributions.
Students who perceived an emphasis on mastery goals in the
classroom reported using more effective strategies, preferred
challenging tasks, had a more positive attitude toward the class,
and had a stronger belief that success follows from one's effort.
Students who perceived performance goals as salient tended to
48
focus on their ability, evaluating their ability negatively and
attributing failure to lack of ability. The pattern and strength of
the findings suggest that the classroom goal orientation may
facilitate the maintenance of adaptive motivation patterns when
mastery goals are salient and are adopted by students.
According to Zimmerman (1989), self-regulated learners are
individuals who are “metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally
active participants in their own learning process”
Wade and Trathen (1989) investigated the impact of highlighting
ideas in a text on perceiving the importance of those ideas and learning
them. They found that effective study requires more than underlining,
emphasizing, and note-taking. Questions were useful for all students,
particularly for low-ability learners.
Wittrock and Alessandrini (1990) investigated the influences of
reading text, using analogies, and producing summaries on analytical and
holistic capacities. Results showed that groups employing analogies and
summaries outperformed those employing reading only strategy because
those strategies stimulated higher level of analysis and synthesis. Hooper,
Sales and Rysavy (1994) further found that writing summaries produced
49
higher performance than using analogies for university students because
the students were not really successful in producing good analogies.
Braten and Olaussen (1998) investigated the relationship between
motivational beliefs and the use of learning strategies. They found that
when students work hard toward accomplishing a goal, they employ more
and better strategies. McWhaw and Abrami (2001) confirmed that
students with high level of interest use more strategies than those with
low level of interest in a learning area. This is consistent with the result
that students have more power or control over the use of strategies than
teachers (Eshel & Kohavi, 2003).
Lambrecht (1999) concluded that the learning of computer and
information systems concepts usually involves listening to lectures,
taking notes, participating in discussions, and taking tests that are aimed
to provide an overall measure of how much is learned. The most
commonly used approach in a computer lab, on the other hand, requires
students to follow some type of step-by-step instructions to complete
projects or assignments on computers and the projects and assignments
are evaluated for mastery of the computer software.
Chun-Shih & Gamon (2002) "Relationships Among Learning
Strategies, Patterns, Styles, and Achievement in Web-Based
50
Courses". This study analyzed the relationships among student
achievement, learning strategies, learning patterns, learning styles, and
student characteristics. The population of this study included 99 students
taking two Web-based courses offered by a land grant university in the
United States. Seventy-four students (75%) completed a learning style
test, an on-line questionnaire, and received grades by the end of the
semester. The learning style test was the Group Embedded Figures Test
(GEFT), which classified students as either field-dependent or field-
independent. The on-line questionnaire consisted of two scales (learning
strategy and learning pattern), with pilot-test reliabilities of .80 and .72,
respectively. The students used most of the learning strategies to find
important ideas from lectures and to memorize key words of important
concepts. They seemed to be more interested in checking their grades
than in communicating with the class and instructors via e-mail,
discussion forum, or chat room. Learning strategy was the only
significant factor that explained about one-fourth of student achievement
measured by class grade.
Caattheriine S. Chen(2002) "Self-regulated Learning
Strategies and Achievement in an Introduction to Information
Systems Course". The shift from behaviorism to cognitivism in
51
educational psychology has placed an increasing responsibility on
learners for their own learning, and self-regulated learning has become a
frequent area of educational research. The Motivated Strategies for
Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) is a widely used instrument to assess
college students’ self-regulated learning. This research investigated
effective self-regulated learning strategies in a lecture-led concept
learning environment versus a hands-on computer lab learning
environment for an introduction to information systems course. The
findings revealed that effort regulation had a positive effect and peer
learning had a negative effect on learning computer concepts. The
findings on effective strategies for hands-on computer lab learning were
inconclusive. Further research is needed to examine the appropriateness
of MSLQ in assessing students’ self-regulated learning in a computer lab
learning environment.
Sizoo, Malhotra and Bearson (2003) compared learning
strategies of students in distance education and traditional face-to-face
education. They found no difference for male students in both modes of
instruction. However, female students in distance education programs
were more successful than their counterparts in traditional programs. The
literature also suggests that online learners usually have higher
52
motivation and use more advanced strategies than traditional classroom
learners.
Rebecca L.(2003) "Language Learning Styles and Strategies:
An Overview". In “Language Learning Styles and Strategies,” the
author synthesizes research from various parts of the world on two key
variables affecting language learning: styles, i.e., the general approaches
to learning a language; and strategies, the specific behaviors or thoughts
learners use to enhance their language learning. These factors influence
the student’s ability to learn in a particular instructional framework.
Leigh M Wadsworth, Jenefer Husman, Mary Anne
Duggan, M. Nan Pennington (2004) Online Mathematics
Achievement : Effects Learning Strategies and Self -Efficacy.
Fluid and flexible learning strategies repertoire and self-efficacy
have been documented as important factors for learning and
achievement. However, there has been little research examining
the effects of these same factors on achievement in an online
learning environment. The current research investigates the
strategies used by and self-efficacy demonstrated by successful
college students in an online development mathematics course.
This article provides evidence of the relationship between
53
learning strategies, motivation, self-efficacy, and student
achievement in this environment. Participants were 89 students
enrolled in an online developmental mathematics course. Results
indicate four types of learning strategies -motivation,
concentration, information processing, and self-testing-along
with self-efficacy predicting 42% (r=0.65) or the variance in
grade achievement.
Ido Roll, Ryan Shaun Baker, Vincent Aleven, Kenneth R.
Koedinger (2005) "A Metacognitive ACT-R Model of Students’
Learning Strategies in Intelligent Tutoring Systems". Research has
shown that students’ problem-solving actions vary in type and duration.
Among other causes, this behavior is a result of strategies that are driven
by different goals. We describe a first version of a computational
cognitive model that explains the origin of these strategies and identifies
the tendencies of students towards different learning goals. Our model
takes into account (i) interpersonal differences, (ii) an estimation of the
student’s knowledge level, and (iii) current feedback from the tutor, in
order to predict the next action of the student – a solution, a guess or a
help request. Our long-term goal is to use identification of the students’
54
strategies and their efficiency in order to better understand the learning
process and to improve the metacognitive learning skills of the students.
Ghoniem Mohamed Ahmed (2006) "Prediction of Achievement
Goals and Academic Through Study Processes and Learning
Strategies". The aims of this study were to investigated how far study
processes, learningstrategies and achievement goals are variant,
predicting achievement goals through study processes and learning
strategies and forcasting achievement through study processes, learning
strategies and achievement goals. The researcher translated three
instruments (Study Processes Questionnaire /Learning Strategies
Checklist and Achievement goals scale). First, they were administered to
a pilot sample of 113 students and then to a final sample 227 students at
Bisha Teachers College, Saudi Arabia. Factor analysis and regression
analysis were applied in data analysis . The study came to the following
conclusions: i. Surface study processes (surface strategy /surface motive)
were variant learning strategy Surface study processes were not variant
from performance objectives as a dimension of achievement goals. (ii)
Interpersonal help seeking strategies motivation control were variant from
study processes and the two dimensions of achievement goals
(performance /learning). (iii) Beta values proved that surface strategies
/deep strategies /surface motive / motive control are the factor which help
55
predict performance goals. (iv) Beta values proved that )rehearsal /active
reflection and deep motive) could help predict achievement.
Anneke Vrugt, Frans J Oort (2007) "Metacognition,
achievement goals, study strategies and academic
achievement : pathways to achievement". The purpose of this
research was to develop and test a model of effective self-
regulated learning. Based on effort expenditure we discerned
effective self-regulators and less effective self-regulators. The
model comprised achievement goals (mastery, performance -
approach and-avoidance goals), metacognition (metacognitive
knowledge, regulation and experience), study strategies
(metacognitive, deep cognitive, surface cognitive and resource
management strategies) and academic achievement. The
relationships in the model were tested with controlling for
intellectual ability, gender and age. The results showed that
effective self-regulated learning involved two pathways: a
metacognitive and a strategy pathway. The first pathway
involved a positive relationship of mastery goals and a negative
relationship of performance-avoidance goal.
56
Age Diseth, Therese Kobbeitvedt (2010) "A mediation
analysis of achievement motives, goals, learning strategies,
and academic achievement". Previous research is inconclusive
regarding antecedents and consequences of achievement goals,
and there is a need for more research in order to examine the
joint effects of different types of mot ives and learning strategies
as predictors of academic achievements with metacognition.
Metacognition positively affected the use of the four study
strategies. The strategy pathway involved positive effects of
mastery and performance-approach goals on the use of
metachgnitive and deep cognitive strategies. Further,
performance-approach goals positively affected the use of
surface cognitive and resource management strategies. The use
of metacognitive and resource management strategies had a
positive and the sue of surface cognitive strategies had a
negative effect on exam scores.
O. Patrick Ajaja (2010) "Effects of Cooperative Learning
Strategy on Junior Secondary School Students Achievement in
Integrated Science". The purpose of this study was to determine how
the adoption of cooperativelearning as an instructional strategy for
57
teaching Integrated Science influences students’achievement and attitude
towards studies. The study also determined how moderatingvariables like
sex and ability affect students' achievement in Integrated Science
whencooperative learning is used as an instructional strategy. To guide
this study, fivehypotheses were stated and tested at 0.05 level of
significance. The design of the studywas a 2x2x2x2 factorial, pre-test,
post-test control group design. These included twoinstructional groups
(cooperative and traditional classroom groups), sex (male andfemale),
ability (high and low), and repeated testing (pre-test and post-test).
Thepopulation of study was made up of 205 JS III students from where a
sample of 120students was randomly selected. The instruments used for
the collection of data included:a Scholastic Ability Test in Integrated
Science (SATIS), Students’ Attitude Scale (SAS),and Integrated Science
Achievement Test (ISAT). All the data collected were analyzed with
analysis of co-variance statistic. The major findings of the study included:
a significant higher achievement test scores of students in cooperative
learning group than those in traditional classroom; a significant higher
attitude scores of students in cooperative learning group than those in
traditional classroom; a significant higher achievement test scores of all
students of varying abilities in cooperative learning group than those in
traditional classroom; a non-significant difference in achievement test
58
scores between the male and female students in the cooperative learning
group, and nonsignificant interaction effect between sex and ability, sex
and method, ability and method and among method, sex and ability on
achievement.
Simsek (2011) "Learning Strategies of Successful and
Unsuccessful University Students". The purpose of this study was to
assess the most commonly used learning strategies of undergraduate
students and how these strategies were related to their academic
performance. Toward this purpose, a 60 item Likert scale was
administered to a sample of 278 undergraduate students. The students
were selected based on their cumulative grand-point-average as the most
successful and the least successful five senior-year students from each
majoring area in the faculties of arts, engineering, science,
communication, and sports. The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient
of the scale was 0,93. Results showed that successful students used more,
varied, and better learning strategies than unsuccessful students. Female
students were more effective in selecting and using appropriate strategies
than male students. There were a variety of differences among fields of
study; students of fine arts used the strategies least, while students of
sports used them the most. The most preferred group of strategies was
59
metacognitive strategies, whereas the least preferred group was
organization strategies. The same pattern was found for the level of
success, gender, and field of study. The results overall imply that certain
strategies contribute to student performance more than other strategies,
and majority of university students are aware of this situation.
Keith et al. (1997) gave a note which is based on the results of a
study into the co-operative, competitive and individualistic learning
environments. It is argued that how the learning environment is defined
and the associated tendencies for the students to work on or off-task are
key issues affecting levels of the self-efficiency and achievement among
the students. The results indicated that the students who worked in the co-
operative learning environment had a significantly higher [P (0.05)]
adjusted mean or self-efficacy (knowledge) than the students who worked
in the competitive learning environment. For ten week, the co-operative
learning environment had an adjusted mean for achievement (knowledge)
that was significantly higher [P(0.01)] than the adjusted mean for the
same variable for the competitive learning environment. The confinement
of significant differences to the knowledge component of social studies,
as compared with the mapping skill component, points to the importance
60
of taking the type of task into consideration in these types of studies, as
indicated by Cotton and Cook (1982).
The video analysis indicated that most of the class time observed
was spent working co-operatively or competitively as expected. In
summary, classes that did not use any competition maintained good
behaviour throughout the term. Those classes that began competitively
and then first five weeks and then had difficulty changing their behaviour
when the poor-behaviour condition was removed. When the classes
changed environments, a similar level of on or off-task behaviour tended
to continue until the students had worked for several weeks in the new
environment. Where major differences occurred between environments in
the degrees of off-task behaviours by students there was some degree of
complementary variation in measures on the dependent variables. An
example is with self-efficacy in weeks 1-5, when the less well-behaved
students under competition performed significantly worse than the
students in the co-operative learning environment, who were well
behaved.
Hick-Coleman (1997) compared the educational achievement of
high-risk parents when they are taught in different learning environment
and instructional settings. Three parenting education classes were planned
61
and presented on child guidance, child developed and child nutrition. The
non-traditional learners were assigned randomly to four educational
groups, which were (a) teachers-centered individualized instruction, (b)
teacher-centered group instruction, (c) learner-centered individualized
instruction, (d) learner-centered group instruction. The subjects were
given a pre-test and post-test relating to the three areas of parenting.
Results revealed that achievement was slightly higher in teacher-centered
classes than in learner-centered classes. Achievement was also higher in
individualized setting than in-group settings.
Plucker (1998) examined the relationship between school climate
conditions and students aspirations and found that student's aspiration is
related to several educational outcomes, including academic performance,
affective health, attribution and leadership skills. Yet few have reported
explorations of school climate characteristics that may or may not be
related to aspirations. To provide more information on scholastic
condition that might be manipulated in order to increase student
aspirations the author administrated the secondary school 'Aspiration
Survey' to 1,170 students from two New England high schools. The result
of a multivariate analysis of variance and post hoc discriminate analysis
indicated that the students reporting high aspirations i.e., (inspiration and
62
ambition) perceived a more supportive school climate then he students
with low aspirations did especially with respect to conditions related to
monitoring, self confidence and excitement.
Wang and Watkins (1998) investigated a longitudinal study of the
psychological environment and learning approaches in the Hong Kong
classroom and had given a structural equation models linking cognitive
and affective factors, approach to learning and perceptions of the actual
and preferred mathematics classroom environments were tested in a
longitudinal study involving 356 secondary school students in Hong
Kong. Models of acceptable fit that clarified the effects of classroom
environment on how students learn and the outcomes they achieve were
obtained. Numerous significant paths from prior learning experience to
environmental variables were identified; the most salient path from
classroom environment to learning outcomes was that between an
enjoyable classroom environment and cognitive achievement. An
enjoyable classroom environment mediated the causal relationship
between a deep approach and high-level achievement. However,
classroom environment did not seem to influence changes in approach to
learning (In general, approach to learning and classroom environment,
63
particularly the actual environment, was highly correlated with the
affective and the cognitive outcome variables).
Kirsti Lanka (1999) study concentrated on the study practices of
advanced medical students and on how there is related to study success.
All 67 participants were high achievers who had gone through a
demanding selection process. The subject completed a questionnaire
concentrating on their study practices and conceptions of knowledge.
Individual ways of interacting with the learning environment were looked
at in the light of interviews of 35 volunteer students. The result showed
that students individual study orchestrations were related to study
success. It was concluded that dissonant study orchestrations might
develop because of the mismatch between the demands of the learning
environment and student's personal goals.
Dart et al. (2000) searched students' conceptions of learning, the
classroom environment, and approaches to learning and gave a model that
hypothesized relationship between high school students' conceptions of
learning, their perceptions of the classroom environment, and their
approaches to learning was tested using structural equation modeling.
Results suggested that important associations exist between conceptions
of learning and approaches to learning. Students who reported qualitative
64
and experimental conceptions were likely to use deep approaches to
learning, whereas students who had quantitative conceptions of these
findings for teachers and the way they function in the classroom
environment are discussed. The influences of student's concepts of
learning and their perception of the classroom-learning environment on
their approaches to learning are examined in this study.
Church et. al (2001) conducted two research studies on,
'Perceptions of Classroom Environment, Achievement Goals, and
Achievement Outcomes' and re-examined the relationship between under
graduates' perceptions of their classroom environment, their adoption of
achievement goal for the motivation.
Results revealed a distinct antecedent profile for each goal in the
dichotomous framework; mastery goals were linked to the presence of
lecture engagement and the absence of an evaluation focus and harsh
evaluation, performance-approach goals were linked to the presence of
evaluation focus, and performance-avoidance, goals were evaluated.
When the perceived classroom environment and linked to the presence of
evaluation focus and harsh achievement goal variables were tested
together as predictors of graded performance and intrinsic motivation, the
result clearly demonstrate that the influence of the perceived classroom
65
environment on these outcomes measures was indirect; the perceived
classroom environment influenced achievement goal adoption, and
achievement goal adoption, in turn, directly influenced graded
performance and intrinsic motivation.
Hagtvet, (1990); Valentine & DeBois, (2005), “Relations
Between Academic Self-concept and Academic Achievement”. Studies
have repeatedly shown moderate-to-strong correlations between academic
achievement and academic self-concept. Moreover, as research on self-
concept becomes more refined, a pattern on domain specificity has been
confirmed. That is, substantial correlations have been found between
matching areas of achievement (e.g. English and maths achievement)
with their respective self-concept (e.g. English and maths self-concept),
whereas substantially low correlations have been found between non-
matching areas of academic self-concept and achievement (see for
example Marsh, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller & Baumert, 2004). Although
the relationship between academic self-concept and academic
achievement is well established in the literature, there remains no firm
agreement about the causal ordering (Skaalvik & Valas, 1999). In fact, a
number of researchers purport that causal predominance remains an
unresolved issue (Byrne, 1996; Pottebaum, Keith, & Ehly, 1986). A
66
number of competing models have been proposed from both logical and
theoretical grounds. These models of causation include: (a) Achievement
affects self concept (skill-development model), (b) self-concept affects
achievement (self-enhancing model), (c) achievement and self-concept
affect each other (reciprocal effects model), and (d) external variables
affect both achievement and self-concept.
Cokley, Kevin. (2005), “An Investigation of Academic Self-
Concept and its Relationship to Academic Achievement in African
American College Students”. This study examined the academic self-
concept construct in a sample of 206 African American students attending
historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and predominantly
White colleges and universities (PWCUs). Institutional, gender, and class
status (i.e., year in college) differences in academic self-concept were
investigated as well as factors that predict academic self-concept.
Participants completed the Academic Self-Concept Scale. Findings
indicated that the best predictor of academic self-concept for students
attending PWCUs was grade point average, whereas the best predictor of
academic self-concept for students attending HBCUs was quality of
student-faculty interactions. Additional analyses indicated that grade
point average is significantly more important for the academic self-
67
concept of African American students attending PWCUs than African
American students attending HBCUs. Implications for psychologists are
discussed.
Lisa S. Blackwell (2007) “Implicit Theories of Intelligence
Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A
Longitudinal Study and an Intervention”. Two studies explored the
role of implicit theories of intelligence in adolescents’ mathematics
achievement. In Study 1 with 373 7th graders, the belief that intelligence
is malleable (incremental theory) predicted an upward trajectory in grades
over the two years of junior high school, while a belief that intelligence is
fixed (entity theory) predicted a flat trajectory. A meditational model
including learning goals, positive beliefs about effort, and causal
attributions and strategies was tested. In Study 2, an intervention teaching
an incremental theory to 7th graders (N548) promoted positive change in
classroom motivation, compared with a control group (N543).
Simultaneously, students in the control group displayed a continuing
downward trajectory in grades, while this decline was reversed for
students in the experimental group.
Nada Salem Abisamra (2000) “Emotional Intelligence and
Academic Achievement: The Relationship between Emotional
68
Intelligence and Academic Achievement in Eleventh Graders". We
are at the beginning of a new century, and intelligence and success are not
viewed the same way they were before. New theories of intelligence have
been introduced and are gradually replacing the traditional theory. The
whole child/student has become the center of concern, not only his
reasoning capacities, but also his creativity, emotions, and interpersonal
skills. The Multiple Intelligences theory has been introduced by Howard
Gardner (1983), and the Emotional Intelligence theory by Mayer &
Salovey (1990) then Goleman (1995). IQ alone is no more the only
measure for success; emotional intelligence, social intelligence, and luck
also play a big role in a person's success (Goleman, 1995). The purpose
of this study is to see whether there is a relationship between emotional
intelligence and academic success. Do high achievers in 11th grade have a
high emotional intelligence level or isn’t there any relationship between
their achievement and their emotional intelligence? So, the population of
this study will be the 11th graders in Montgomery, Alabama. The sample
will be 500 11th graders-- boys and girls-- from public and private schools
in Montgomery, Alabama. The sampling will be stratified, making sure
that schools, genders, races, socioeconomic statuses, and abilities will be
appropriately represented. The sample will be given the BarOn Emotional
Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) which is the first scientifically developed and
69
validated measure of emotional intelligence. The BarOn EQ-i consists of
133 items and takes approximately 30 minutes to complete. We shall
calculate the mean of all the grades each of the 500 students has had for
the last semester (this study being done in the second semester of school),
separating the high from the middle and the low achievers. Afterwards we
shall compare these grades with the Emotional Intelligence level of each
student, to see whether there is a relationship between emotional
intelligence and academic achievement or not, in order for us to be able to
accept or reject our hypothesis.
Habibollah Naderi1 and et al (2009) “Intelligence, Creativity
and Gender as Predictors of Academic Achievement among
Undergraduate Students”. The purpose of this cross – sectional study
was to assess prediction of intelligence, creativity and gender on
academic achievement among undergraduate students. Participants (N=
153, 105 = male & 48= female) completed intelligence and creativity
tests which were compared with their cumulative grade point average
(CGPA). A multiple regression analysis indicated that intelligence,
creativity and gender explained 0.045 of the variance in academic
achievement, which is not significant, as indicated by the F- value of
2.334. Multiple regression analyses also indicated that intelligence and
70
creativity (gender is controlled) together explained 0.010 of the variance
in academic achievement, which is also not significant, as indicated by
the F- value of 1.562. Partial correlations between academic achievement
and IQ, creativity scores and gender were non significant at .05.
Coefficients also showed there is no significance between academic
achievement and IQ and gender at .05, except for creativity (t= 2.008, p=
0.046). Finding shows predicting lower independent variables of this
study (scores of intelligence, creativity and gender) on academic
achievement (CGPA).[Journal of American Science 2009:5(3) 8-19] (
ISSN: 1545-1003)
Keywords: Academic Achievement, Creativity, Intelligence,
Gender
Maliha Nasir & Rehana Masrur (2010,) “An Exploration of
Emotional Intelligence of the Students of IIUI in Relation to Gender,
Age and Academic Achievement". This correlational study was
intended to examine the relationship of emotional intelligence (EI) with
gender, age and academic achievement of students of International
Islamic University Islamabad (IIUI). In this study the predictor variable
was emotional intelligence and criterion variable was academic
achievement as measured by students’ Cumulative Grade Point Average
71
(CGPA). Emotional intelligence was measured with the help of BarOn
Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi). The validity and reliability of EQi
was measured and the instrument was found to be valid and highly
internally consistent. Correlation analysis, regression analysis and t-test
were performed to test the hypotheses. Results indicated a significant
correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement.
Emotional intelligence was found a significant predictor of academic
achievement. No significant correlation was found between age and
emotional intelligence. There was no difference in the mean EQi scores
of male and female students except on stress management scale where
male students scored higher than female students.
Rahil Mahyuddin, Habibah Elias and Nooreen Noordin (2010)
“Emotional Intelligence, Achievement Motivation and Academic
Achievement Among Students of the Public and Private Higher
Institutions”. This study examines the academic performances among
students from the Public Higher Institutions and the Private Higher
Institutions. Sanchez (2006) reported that Public schools perform
favorably with private schools when students’ income and socio-
economic status are taken into account The findings counter a popularly
held notion, that private schools outperform public schools. Another
72
finding by The Center on Education Policy (CEP) (2007) also indicated
that private school students and public school students perform equally on
achievement tests. However this study conducted on 647 second year
students in two public and two private universities in Malaysia finds that
students from the Public Higher Institutions perform better academically
(Mean =3.25, SD =0.38) as compared to students from the Private Higher
Institutions (Mean =3.05, SD = 0.47). The students from the Public
Higher Institutions seemed to did better. Hence this study also looked into
two psychosocial factors (Emotional Intelligence(EI) and Achievement
Motivation (nAch) that may lead into the explanations on the differences.
However it was found there was no correlations between EQ and
Academic Achievement (except a dimension of EI) but there was a
positive correlation between Achievement Motivation and Academic
Achievement. There is also a significant correlation between EQ and
Achievement Motivation. The findings are discussed
Habibollah Naderi (2006) “Intelligence and Gender as
Predictors of Academic Achievement Among Undergraduate
Students". There has been significant discussion concerning the causal
preference of intelligence,gender and academic achievement. A number
of researchers’ have examined intelligence, gender and academic
73
achievement as equal constructs. Others consider that intelligence and
gender as predictors of academic achievement are reciprocal. At a
standstill, others emphasize that intelligence and gender predict to
achievement. This study examined intelligence and gender as predictors
of academic achievement among undergraduate students. Participants
(N= 153, 105 = male & 48= female) completed intelligence test and the
cumulative grade point average (CGPA). The finding showed a lower
correlation independent variables (score of intelligence and gender)and
CGPA in this study. A multiple regression analysis revealed an
interesting pattern of relationship. Further, multiple regression analyses
indicated that intelligence and gender explained 0.019 of the variance in
academic achievement.
Saba Ghayas and Adnan Adil (2007) “Effect of Handedness on
Intelligence Level of Students”. The present study aimed at finding the
effect of handedness on intelligence level of students. The sample
consisted of 150 intermediate, graduate, and postgraduate students of
Sargodha district including an equal number of left and right handers.
Laterality Assessment Inventory and Raven Standard Progressive
Matrices Test were used to assess handedness and intelligence
respectively. Results indicated that left handed participants were
74
significantly more intelligent than the right handed participants (p < .05)
and time taken by the right handers was significantly greater than that of
the left handers (p < .05). ANOVA showed nonsignificant difference
between the intelligence of students at different educational levels.
Mba Project Reports (2011) "The impact of demographics
variables on emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness on job
satisfaction” . Today emotional intelligence is a popular topic of many
discussions among academic scholars and corporate executives. What
exactly is emotional intelligence, and what role does it play in business
and in education? In this paper, I will attempt to answer these questions
by providing definitions and a brief history of emotional intelligence
(EQ); by discussing the key components of emotional intelligence. This
paper seeks to accomplish four objectives. The first is to provide meaning
of emotional intelligence (EI), communication effectiveness, motivation,
job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The second is to develop an
integration model showing the relationships among EI, communication
effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables.
The third is to invest in people through EI activities, communication
effectiveness and motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables
programs. Lack of recognition of the interconnection among EI,
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communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and
demographic variables in the literature motivated the authors to write this
paper.
Amy E. Colbert “Intelligence and Leadership A Meta-analysis
of the Relationship between Intelligence and Leadership”. Meta-
analysis was used to aggregate results from studies examining the
relationship between intelligence and leadership. One hundred fifty-one
independent samples in 96 sources met the criteria for inclusion in the
meta-analysis. Results indicated that the fully corrected correlation
between intelligence and leadership is .21 (.27 when corrected for range
restriction). Perceptual measures of intelligence showed stronger
correlations with leadership than did paper-and-pencil measures of
intelligence. Intelligence correlated with objective and perceptual
measures of leadership equally well. Additionally, the leader’s stress
level and the leader’s directiveness moderated the intelligence-leadership
relationship. Overall, results suggest that the relationship between
intelligence and leadership is considerably lower than previously thought.
The results also provide meta-analytic support for both implicit
leadership theory and cognitive resource theory.
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Oyesojl A. Aremu “Relationship among Emotional
Intelligence, Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement of
Secondary School Students". This study investigated the relationship
among emotional intelligence, parental involvement and academic
achievement of 500 Senior Secondary School Students in Ibadan,
Nigeria. The participants ranged in age between 14 and 18 years
(M=16.5, SD. = 1.7). Two hypotheses were tested for significance at .05
margin of error, Using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
and Multiple Regression Statistics. Results showed that both emotional
intelligence and parental involvement could predict academic
achievement. Similarly, there were significant positive relationship
between emotional intelligence and academic achievement; and between
parental involvement and academic achievement .The implications of
these results for academic are discussed.
Ulric Neisser and et al (1995) “Intelligence: Knowns and
Unknowns”. In the fall of 1994, the publication of Hermstein and
Murray's book The Bell Curve sparked a new round of debate about the
meaning of intelligence test scores and the nature of intelligence. The
debate was characterized by strong assertions as well as by strong
feelings. Unfortunately, those assertions often revealed serious
77
misunderstandings of what has (and has not) been demonstrated by
scientific research in this field. Although a great deal is now known, the
issues remain complex and in many cases still unresolved. Another
unfortunate aspect of the debate was that many participants made little
effort to distinguish scientific issues from. political ones, Research
findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their
scientific standing as on their supposed political implications. In such a
climate. individuals who wish to make their own judgments find it hard to
know what to believe. Reviewing the intelligence debate at its meeting of
November 1994, the Board of Scientific Affairs (BSA) of the American
Psychological Association (APA) concluded that there was urgent need
for an authoritative report on these issues - one that all sides could use as
a basis for discussion. Acting by unanimous vote, BSA established a Task
Force charged with preparing such a report. Ulric Neisser, Professor of
Psychology at Emory University and a member of BSA, was appointed
Chair. The APA Board on the Advancement of Psychology in the Public
Interest (BAPPI), which was consulted extensively during this process,
nominated one member of the Task Force; the Committee on
Psychological Tests and Assessment nominated another; a third was
nominated by the Council of Representatives. Other members were
chosen by an extended consultative process, with the aim of representing
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a broad range of expertise and opinion. The Task Force met twice, in
January and March of 1995. Between and after these meetings, drafts of
the various sections were circulated, revised, and revised yet again.
Disputes were resolved by discussion. As a result, the report presented
here has the unanimous support of the entire Task Force. In July 1995,
members of BSA and BAPPI were asked to comment on a preliminary
draft of the report. Many of their helpful responses have been
incorporated in this final version, and we are grateful for their assistance.
We also wish to acknowledge the energetic and indispensable logistical
support of the APA Science Directorate, especially Suzanne Wandersman
and Dianne Brown. It is our hope that the result of all these efforts will
prove to be a constructive contribution to the intelligence
Juan Pablo Rodríguez Prieto (2002) “Emotional Intelligence,
Motivational Orientations, and Motivational Learning Effort and
Achievement in Ball State University". There is a general feeling that
the role of emotions has not been well studied yet in Second Language
Acquisition (SLA) and, as a consequence, there is a growing interest to
include the role of emotions as a new source of students’ individual
differences (IDs) in the research agenda. MacIntyre argued that emotion
“just might be the fundamental basis of motivation, one deserving far
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greater attention in the language learning domain” (p. 45). Dörnyei &
Skehan (2003) listed some basic challenges that most motivation theories
have failed to address adequately, including “integrating emotional
influences into the primarily cognitive paradigms” (p. 616). Similarly,
Dewaele (2005) argued in favor of broadening the field of instructed SLA
by including the emotional dimension in research in order to provide
crucial theoretical insights into SLA that are now absent. One concern is
whether SLA researchers should concentrate on the relevance of isolated
emotions, or if a broader construct capable of integrating all possible
feelings might have a greater predictive power. Happiness,
embarrassment, anxiousness, nervousness, depression, euphoria,
humiliation, and anger are some examples of the emotions students can
exhibit in the language learning classroom. In fact, MacIntyre (2002)
stated that “to some extent language learning itself is prone to creating
intense emotion” (p. 67). Studying emotions one at a time would require
an agreement on the definition of what differentiates a given emotion
from a similar one if, for example, both of them are members of the same
family. In the field of psychology some theorists propose basic families,
though not all agree on them. Grief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom,
melancholy, self-pity, loneliness, dejection, despair, and even severe
depression had been included under the family entitled sadness. However,
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there is a recent theoretical construct that incorporates all possible
feelings as well as emotional skills into a unified framework, by
following the expansion of the scope of traditional intelligence proposed
by Gardner (1983). This construct is the theory of Emotional Intelligence
(EI).
Katrina L. Barker and et al, (2008) “Effects between
Motivational Goals, Academic Self-Concept and Academic
Achievement: What is the Causal Ordering”. Research has been
conducted on a) relations between academic self-concept and academic
achievement, which is well established in the literature; however there
remains disagreement about the causal ordering of these constructs b)
relations between motivation and academic achievement which show
moderate-to-strong correlations and c) relations between academic self-
concept and motivational indicators which show strong correlations. Of
the studies that combine self-concept and motivation, few examine
motivation from a goal perspective. The generalized hypothesis attached
to this investigation is that variables drawn from self-concept and goal
theories taken together will provide a fuller explanation of academic
achievement than is possible with either self-concept or motivational goal
variables alone. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine with a
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longitudinal perspective, the relations between goal theory (mastery,
performance and social), academic self-concept (maths and English) and
academic achievement among seven-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students.
Mucheraha, Winnie and et al (2010) “Perceptions of self-
concept and actual academic performance in Math and English
among High School Students in Kenya”. This study examined the
relationship between self-concept and students’ academic performance in
math and English for high school students in Kenya. Participants included
1990 students from two same sex boarding schools-one for boys and the
other for girls. Results showed there were sex and grade differences in
academic performance and most aspects of self-concept. Specifically,
girls did better in math. Performance in English was not significantly
different. Grade level differences showed a downward trend relative to
norms in both math and English performance with the lower grade levels
performing better. This trend possibly related to the changing standards
by the teachers. On the self concept measures, boys rated themselves
significantly higher than girls except for physical appearance. As the
students progressed through each grade level, their perceptions of self
increased. Study implications are discussed.
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Ahmad, Jamaludin and et al (2010)“The Relationship Between
Self Concept and Response Towards Student’s Academic
Achievement Among Students Leaders in University Putra
Malaysia”. This is a quantitative research using Correlational method.
The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between self
concept and ability to handle stress on academic achievement of student
leaders in University Putra Malaysia. The sample size consists of 106
respondents who are the Student Supreme Council and Student
Representative Committee. Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) was
used to evaluate respondents’ self concept and for respondents’ responses
strategy the Response Strategy Questionnaire were used. The
respondents’ CGPA is used to evaluate their academic achievements. The
findings illustrate that there is no significant relationship between self
concept and academic achievement. Correlation between self concept and
academic achievement is not significant (r = 0.06, p = 0.950). Meanwhile,
there is a significant relationship between respondents’ response
strategies and academic achievements X2 (10, N = 106) = 19.721, p =
0.032. This would mean that the respondent’s response strategy is
influenced by his or her academic achievement. The value of frequency
contingency, 0.396 illustrate that the relationship is positive and low. The
findings from this research will provide information to those who intend
83
to plan beneficial programs for the university or the community in
general.
Ray J. John (1984) Locus of Control as a Moderator of the
Relationship Between Level of Aspiration and Achievement
Motivation”. Basumallik and Banerjee, Weinstein, and Ray have
reported findings from India, the United States, and Australia which call
into question the once generally accepted relationship between high
achievement motivation and intermediate levels of risk-preference (1). It
now appears that the two variables are essentially unrelated. Wolk and Du
Cette (2) also found no overall relationship but reported that when they
studied only the "internals" (in Rotter's (3) sense) in their sample, the
predicted relationship could be found quite strongly. Their work in this
respect has been praised by Lefcourt (4), but it is nonetheless hard to see
how there could be a strong relationship in one half of the sample, no
relationship in the other half, and also no relationship overall. One would
surely have thought that the overall relationship would be some sort of
weaker (in-between) relationship.
There is an opportunity for independent replication of their work
with the use of data from Study II of the Ray paper (5) containing a
"belief in luck" scale derived from and shown to measure the core
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concept of the Rotter Locus of Control (LOC) scale (6). The Ss in this
study were therefore divided into those above and below the mean on
belief in luck, and all relationships were reexamined. There were 55
"internals." They were categorized into those who expected to get 0, 1, or
2 rings on the peg in the Litwin (7) experiment; those who expected to get
on 3 or 4 rings; and those who expected to get on 5 or 6 rings. This gave
low-, intermediate-, and high-level aspiration groups (ns 26, 17, and 12).
All Ss received personality inventories measuring achievement
orientation, task orientation, success orientation, fear of failure, and fear
of success. The means of the three groups on all inventories were
compared, and the Fs were all found not to be significant at the <.05
level. The Wolk and Du Cette results in respect of "internals" were not
confirmed.
Flynn (1991) “The Relationship Between IQ, Homework,
Aspirations and Academic Achievement for Chinese, Vietnamese and
Anglo-Celtic Australian School Children”. Proposed that students from
Asian cultural backgrounds typically achieve at higher levels than non-
Asian students with the same IQs. This study investigated relationships
between IQ, study time, educational and occupational aspirations, and
academic achievement among Australian school children ( n = 160) from
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Chinese, Vietnamese and Anglo-Celtic backgrounds. Mathematics grades
for Chinese and Vietnamese Australian children were higher. They spent
more time studying and were more likely to desire an occupation
requiring tertiary qualifications than Anglo-Celtic Australian peers.
Consistent with Flynn's hypothesis, students from Asian backgrounds
obtained higher mathematics grades than their Anglo-Celtic Australian
peers with the same IQ. However, study and occupational aspirations
formed only part of a more complex socio-cultural package that
contributed to group achievement differences. Parents' support for
studying and aspirations may interact with these factors to produce high
achievement.
Quaglia, J. Russell (1996) "Toward a Theory of Student
Aspirations". Student aspirations are a term that is used frequently in
education, yet there does little understand and agreement as to what it
means and even less understanding about its origin. It is the purpose of
this paper to trace some of the key historical perspectives of the construct
of aspirations, and from this backdrop introduces a new manner in which
to view student aspirations. We have elected here to highlight two
influential areas of research: level of aspiration and achievement
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motivation. These key areas, supplemented by social comparison theory,
provide a historical framework with which to understand aspirations.
Rojewski, Jay W. (1996) “Educational and occupational
aspirations of high school seniors with learning disabilities.” Using
the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, this study
investigated the educational and occupational aspirations of high school
seniors with and without learning disabilities. Effect sizes showed
practical differences between the aspirations of young people with
learning disabilities and their peers without disabilities, with the latter
holding higher aspirations--for both educational and occupational
outcomes. No practical differences were found for female versus male
adolescents with learning disabilities. Adolescents with learning
disabilities who aspired to a high school diploma or less, and those who
aspired to an advanced college degree, espoused lower occupational as
aspirations than did their peers without disabilities.
The purpose of this study is to check to what extent different
environmental and institutional surroundings affect educational
aspirations. We conduct a comparison study between different local
municipalities in Poland. We use statistical description to compare
educational aspirations in selected regions of Poland and apply
87
econometric techniques to test formally the relation between educational
aspirations and education, income and other socioeconomic factors. We
show that the level of aspirations is well diversified and is higher in
developed areas of Poland. We also found that contrary to the existing
literature, the educational aspirations seem to rise with age of the
respondent.
Wei-Cheng Mau and Lynette Heim Bikos (2000) “Educational
and Vocational Aspirations of Minority and Female Students: A
Longitudinal Study". This study examined the relative importance of
school, family, personal/psychological, race, and sex variables in
predicting educational and vocational aspirations. A nationally
representative sample of 10th-grade students was followed through 2
years beyond their high school. Results suggested that sex and race
significantly predicted educational and vocational aspirations of students.
The educational aspiration model was shown to be more robust than the
occupational aspiration model. Overall, students showed increases in
educational and occupational aspirations, regardless of sex and race.
Compared with other groups, Asian Americans had the greatest increase
in educational aspirations. Female students, on the average, had higher
educational and vocational aspirations.
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Cary M. Watson, Teri Quatman and Edler Erik (2002)
“Career Aspirations of Adolescent Girls: Effects of Achievement
Level, Grade, and Single-Sex School Environment". The career
aspirations of high-achieving adolescent girls were explored by
comparing them to the aspirations of adolescent boys as well as by
looking at the influence of grade in school, achievement level, and an all-
girls school environment. The participants' ideal and real career
aspirations, scored in terms of prestige, were investigated via 2 sets of
analyses, with coed (n = 704) and single-sex female (n = 494) adolescent
samples. Results showed that high-achieving girls exceeded the
aspirations of average-achieving girls and boys, and were the same as
those of high-achieving boys. Gender and grade differences in ideal and
real career choices over all achievement levels are also reported and
discussed. Girls at single-sex schools had higher real career aspirations
than did girls and boys at coed schools.
Fan, Xitao and Chen, Michael (2003) "Parental Involvement
and Students' Academic Achievement". The idea that parental
involvement has positive influence on students' academic achievement is
so intuitively appealing that society in general, and educators in
particular, have considered parental involvement an important ingredient
89
for the remedy for many problems in education. The vast proportion of
the literature in this area, however, is qualitative and nonempirical.
Among the empirical studies that have investigated the issue
quantitatively, there appear to be considerable inconsistencies. A meta-
analysis was conducted to synthesize the quantitative literature about the
relationship between parental involvement and students' academic
achievement. The findings reveal a small to moderate, and practically
meaningful, relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement. Through moderator analysis, it was revealed that parental
aspiration/expectation for children's education achievement has the
strongest relationship, whereas parental home supervision has the
weakest relationship, with students' academic achievement. In addition,
the relationship is stronger when academic achievement is represented by
a global indicator (e.g., GPA) than by a subject-specific indicator (e.g.,
math grade). Limitations of the study are noted, and suggestions are made
for future studies.
Zuzovsky, Ruth (2003) “Teachers' Qualifications and Their
Impact on Student Achievement” Regarding the relationship between
some teachers' characteristics and students' achievements. This
examination is needed for taking a stance in the hot debate in Israel and
90
elsewhere, regarding the nature of necessary reforms in initial teacher
education, opportunities for professional development and the reward
mechanisms and incentives that affect the career structure of practicing
teachers. The findings in this study, which are in line with findings from
many other studies, do support policy intervention aimed to provide more
opportunities and incentives for participation in content-focused
professional development. Keywords: Teachers' qualifications, student
achievement, teachers' policy.
Niklas Karlsson and et al (2004) “Household consumption:
Influences of aspiration level, social comparison and money
management” Present research posits and tests a model of household
consumption of less necessary or luxury goods and services. It is
hypothesized that a household's economic situation has a direct effect on
this consumption as well as indirect effects mediated by aspiration level,
social comparison and money management. Structural equation modeling
of questionnaire data from a sample of households in a metropolitan area
of Sweden (n=411) was used to test the model. The results reveal that as
expected the household's economic situation has a significant direct effect
on consumption and indirect effects through aspiration level and social
comparison. The results also show that satisfaction with consumption
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increases with increased consumption and decreases with higher
aspiration levels.
Wambugu, Patriciah W. and et al (2008) “Effects of Mastery
Learning Approach on Secondary School Students’ Physics
Achievement” This study aimed at finding out the effects of Mastery
Learning Approach (MLA) onstudents’ achievement in Physics. The
study was Quasi-experimental and Solomon Four Non-equivalent Control
Group Design was used. The target population comprised of secondary
school students in Kieni East Division of Nyeri District. The accessible
population was Form Two students in district co-educational schools in
the division. Purposive sampling was used to obtain a sample of four co-
educational secondary schools. Each school provided one Form Two
class for the study hence a total of 161 students were involved. The
students were taught the same Physics topic of Equilibrium and Centre of
Gravity. In the experimental groups MLA teaching method was used
while the Regular Teaching Method (RTM) was used in the control
groups. The experimental groups were exposed to MLA for a period of
three weeks. The researchers trained the teachers in the experimental
groups on the technique of MLA before the treatment. Pretest was
administered before treatment and a post-test after three weeks treatment.
92
The instrument used in the study was Physics Achievement Test (PAT) to
measure students’ achievement. The instrument was pilot tested to
ascertain the reliability. The reliability coe
ascertained their validity before being used for data collection. Data was
analysed using t-test, ANOVA and ANCOVA. Hypotheses were accepted
or rejected at significant level of 0.05. The results of the study show that
MLA teaching method resulted in higher achievement but gender had no
significant influence on their achievement. The researchers concludes that
MLA is an effective teaching method, which physics teachers should be
encouraged to use and should be implemented in all teacher education
programme in Kenya
Toldson, A. and et al (2009) “Promoting College Aspirations
Among School-Age Black American Males Ivory” This chapter
explores school-related, interpersonal, social, and family factors
associated with college aspirations among school-age black males.
Much of the literature on college aspirations among black males
suggests that African Americans aspire to attend college at rates similar
to their white peers (Mahoney&Merritt,1993; Pitre,2006; Toldson,2008),
and across races females aspire to attend college at higher rates than
males (Hallinan&Williams,1990). However, research evidence suggests
93
that many unique school and social barriers prevent black males from
accessing institutions of higher education (Chavous etal.,2003;
Howard,2003). Moreover, black
Males have demonstrated distinct patterns in achieving educational
goals that have implications for the work of counselors, teachers,
families, and educational activists (Jackson &Moore, 2006; Toldson,
2008). The literature reviews in this section surveys factors associated
with college access, college readiness, and college expectations. The first
section looks specifically at academician school- related factors.
Faize, Ahmad Fayyaz “Effect of Mother’s Level of Education
on Secondary Grade Science Students in Pakistan”. The study was
aimed at finding the effect of level of mother’s education on secondary
grade science student’s performance in Pakistan. The country has a poor
literacy rate that falls below 60% while, the female literacy rate is even
more miserable. The researchers tried to investigate whether the poor
performance of science students at secondary grade is influenced by the
level of mother’s education. A sample of 1233 science students was taken
randomly from 30 schools in the federal capital, Islamabad. The data
were collected through a questionnaire from science students seeking
information about the level of mother’s education. The performance of
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science students was obtained from the school record on the external
examination conducted by an examination board. The mean score of
students was tabulated for each level of mother’s education and further
put to statistical analysis using ANOVA. The researchers found that the
performance of students was better having educated mothers than
illiterate mothers. However, as the level of mother’s education rose, the
difference in science students score was not significant indicating a
certain minimum level of mother’s education required for better student’s
performance.
T. R. Horowitz, N Mosher "Achievement motivation and level
of aspiration: adolescent Ethiopian immigrants in the Israeli
education system” This paper focuses on two questions: Are Ethiopian
high school children who immigrated to Israel achievement motivated?
To what extent does the presence or absence of certain components of the
achievement construct in the indigenous value system of Ethiopian
students affect progress at school? The study is based on pilot research
conducted in Israel in 1987 for which the central research questions were:
Are elements of motivation to be found in the indigenous value system of
Ethiopian students? If so, what is their effect on progress at school? The
research is based on a questionnaire administered to 88 Ethiopian
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students and 85 veteran Israeli students. The main findings of this
research are: There are some elements in the socialization of Ethiopian
students that can be looked upon as components of achievement
motivation. These include a high level of aspiration, the ability to
postpone gratification, and obedience. These elements help the Ethiopian
children succeed at school. On the other hand, some elements in the
socialization of Ethiopian children hinder their progress: conformity
restraints on individual creativity and external locus of control.
Nitza Geri (2010) “Motives and Aspirations for Doctoral
Study: Career, Personal, and Inter-personal Factors in the Decision
to Embark on a History ". While extensive research exists for both the
doctoral experience and career paths after the doctorate, less is known
about the initial motives for starting a PhD. In this study, 11 History PhD
holders from an Australasian university were interviewed about their
reasons for embarking on the doctorate. The motives and aspirations cited
by the participants validate several of the categories identified in the
limited existing literature, such as improving career prospects, personal
development, and intrinsic interest in their discipline. Moreover, the data
support the contention that candidates enter the doctorate with multiple
motives. From this History sample, however, there were no overt motives
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relating to the participants’ sense of their own identity and pressing social
justice concerns or ‘research as politics’. The data reveal that third parties
(friends, colleagues, family members, and academics) when consulted
prior to enrolment did play a generally encouraging role in the decision to
start a doctorate. A recommendation emanating from this research is that
universities consider offering workshops for would-be candidates before
enrolment so that initial motives for doctoral study can be explored and
reflected upon before a candidate embarks.
Nira Danziger(1983) “Sex-related differences in the aspirations
of high school students” This article reviews research on sex
differences in the educational and occupational orientations of
adolescents. Because the aspirations and expectations of adolescents are
predictive of subsequent adult attainment, these variables are important
mediating factors in the process by which individuals of the two sexes
come to occupy different educational and occupational positions in
adulthood. Adolescent boys aspire to a higher level of education than
girls, and the occupational choices of the two sexes are highly sex-
stereotyped. Factors influencing levels of adolescent aspiration are
reviewed, including socioeconomic background, academic ability,
number of siblings, parental encouragement, mother's employment,
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academic performance, peer aspirations, dating, and participation in
school activities. Although sex differences exist in the process by which
both educational and occupational aspirations are formed, they are greater
with respect to occupational than educational aspirations. The author
wishes to thank Elizabeth Bates Harkins for helpful comments on an
earlier draft of this article and Susan M. Ball and Adeline Dinger for
typing the manuscript.
2.2 Studies Conducted in India
Kanchana, M. and Kaliappan, K.V. (2002) study was "Effect of
Behaviour Modification Techniques in Academic Achievement of High
School Girls and findings are (1) All the experimental groups
significantly reduced test anxiety, improved study skills and academic
achievement; but the control groups showed no improvement. (2) RT, SD
and Tm were effective in reducing test anxiety. (3) Reduction of test and
improvement of study skills enhanced academic achievement. (4)
Improvement of study skills contributed more to enhancement of
academic achievement than reduction of test anxiety. (5) Test anxiety and
study skills bear a significant negative relationship.
Kaur, Jagpreet J. S. Rana and et al (2009) Home Environment
and Academic Achievement as Correlates of Self-concept among
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Adolescents” The present study is an attempt to explore academic
achievement and home environment as correlates of self-concept in a
sample of 300 adolescents. The results of the study revealed self-concept
to be positively correlated with academic achievement, though not
significantly so. A significantly positive relationship of home
environment components of protectiveness, conformity, reward, and
nurturance with self-concept is revealed, thereby meaning that use of
rewards and nurturance from parents should be done for positive self-
concept development among adolescents. However, the correlation of
social isolation, deprivation of privileges and rejection components of
home environment is significantly negative with self-concept among
adolescents indicating that for positive self-concept development among
adolescents, there should be less or no use of social isolation, deprivation
of privileges and rejection. The study has implications for educationists
and parents as well.
Jaimini Nirupma., (1991); “Effect of Teaching
Strategies on Conceptual Learning Efficiency and Retention
in Relation to Divergent Thinking”. Study investigates the
effect of two major teaching strategies and their interaction with
creativity on learning outcomes in terms of learning efficiency
99
and retention. Methodology By using the purposive sampling
method three sections of class IX of GG Senior Secondary
Schools, Delhi, was selected. The Quasi Experimental, non
equalent control group design was used. The research employed
pre test- post test design with two experimental groups for two
strategies. Standard Progressive Metrics by Raven Mandis, Test
of creative thinking, and criterion tests developed by the
researcher. ANCOVA was used to treat the data.
Major findings were; (1) the concept retention of the
pupils was not significantly influenced by their divergent
thinking ability; rather it was significantly influenced by the
teaching strategies. (2) Interaction of teaching strategies and
divergent thinking was significant in the concept learning.
Shashi Mohan., (1991); “A Study of the Role of
Aptitude, Attitude and Motivation in English Acquisition”.
The study was aimed to find out the relationship of socio-
psychological factors (attitude, motivation) and linguistic
aptitude to English language learning of senior secondary classes
with reference to types of schooling. The sample comprised 233
students from three public schools and 313 from six govt.
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schools. The tools used, included, English Learning Attitude,
Motivation Questionnaire (ELAMQ), English Achievement Test,
and Language Aptitude Test. The research has used the ex-post
facto design. The collected data were treated using mean, SD,
correlation, regression and factor analyses. Findings were (1)
few aspects attitude and motivation should a significant
correlation to some aspects of English learning. (2) Parental
encouragement found positively related. (3) Attitudinal Variables
should more significant explanatory variance in achievement in
English. (4) Paired associates memory showed a positive
relationship to govt schools and all schools students in spelling,
language machines, language expression and total achievement.
Patadia H.J., (1991); “A Strategy for Mastery
Learning; Its Development and Comparison with
Conventional Methods”. The study attempts to test the
effectiveness of mastery learning in a group oriented classroom
to meet the conflicting demands of a classroom situation.
Methodology; The study employed a before and after design. In
the first phase, the actual teaching learning process in the grade
V mathematics classes were observed and discussed with
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teachers. In the second phase, an experimental group comprised
55 subjects matched IQ with a control group of 55 was subjected
to a corrective learning process which was evaluated. In the third
phase, a final tryout was carried out with 51 experimental and 43
control subjects. Scholastic achievement test and a questionnaire
and percentiles, mean SD and‘t’ test were used for data analyses
of results. Findings were (1) the use of mastery learning
strategies, the role of IQ in the learning of pupils was
considerably reduced, (2) Remedial measures have operative
effect on the overall achievement scores of students.
Odud Md., Abdul, (1989); “Effect of Strategies of
Instructions on Mastery Learning”. The study focused on to
investigate the effect of strategies of instructions on the criterion
of immediate attainment of mastery. Methodology: - the sample
comprised 300 learners of standard VIII Of five urban boys high
schools, distributed over three districts. Three treatment groups
were formed. Transmission of heat was the subject for mastery
learning. Learner programme text, work book, and audio-visual
aids were developed. Test of Formative evaluation which was
developed. Findings were as (1) there was no significant
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difference among different strategies of instructions on the
criterion of immediate attainment of mastery. (2) As regards the
retention of mastery all the three groups differed significantly in
favour of the third strategy followed by the second and the first.
Hence, formative evaluation is the best suited for mastery
learning (PDR 0630)
Sharma Rajkumar., (1988); “A Comparative Study
Between Arts and Science Students on the Effect of Economic
Conditions and Retentions Interval on Trace Structure”. The
study comprises arts and science students on the effect of
economic conditions and retention interval on trace structure.
Methodology: Sixty four students from science and arts faculty
of St John College Agra were selected using the random
sampling procedure. The material for the present investigation
was prepared from a pool of common words. First pool of 350
common words was prepared by the investigator. Other
investigation lists were also prepared by the investigator. Major
findings: (1) Retrieval cuing was one of the more promising
methods for studying properties of memory traces. (2) Far the
traces of individual events would be studied and described. They
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were usefully conceptualized and collective of mere elementary
components differed from one another, In some sense
qualitatively. They were at list to some extent independently
manipulability and variable, and the extent to which feature was
represented in a memory traces could be quantitatively assessed.
Dixit S., (1988); “Information Processing: Analyses of
the Acquisition of learning”. The study attempted to study the
different structures and components of the strategies of acquiring
and processing information, and the variance in strategies due to
certain demographic factors. The sample comprises 448 students
of grades X, XI and XII drawn from four English medium
schools of Baroda, using a cluster random sampling procedure.
Information Schedule for demographic information, and Revans
standard progressive metrics. Data were analyzed using factor
analyses, correlation, multiple regression analyses, Analyses of
variance and ‘t’ test. Findings: (1) Eleven factors extracted from
35 strategies were found to represent the principal strategies of
learning. (2) Performance in mathematics as found to be
significantly related to deep processing. (3) Sex, birth order, and
number of siblings were not associated with the selection of any
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particular learning strategies (4) selection of strategy was
independent of students IQ and achievement in mathematics
language or science subjects.
Dutta S., (1960); “Learning and Retention As a
Function of Affectivity”. The main aim of the study was to
explore the implications of the hypotheses that affective
intensity, irrespective of the quality of feeling tone, was the
determinant of selective receptivity of emotional experience.
Three experiments were carried out. Subjects were chosen from
Bengali lingual groups. Ten pleasant and ten unpleasant
adjective were matched for their intensity for effect and
frequency were presented to for groups. The results, generally
demonstrated that under varying degrees of emotional
involvement, the perceived intensity of affect got changed in
accordance with the principles of the theory of cognitive
dissonance, and that the affective intensities of P and U
materials, as experienced by the subjects, determined their
selective pattern of retention. (2) Selective patterns of retention
were found to be consistent with such patterns of affective
intensity or perceived by the subjects under two different levels
of emotional involvement.
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2.3 Comments on the Review
In the former studies following factors of arts and science
students have been studied as like social development, emotional
development, aspiration etc. Limited studies have been carried
out on learning strategies of arts and science students. It is quite
clear from literature that few researchers on learning strategies
have been conducted and most of the terms involving in the
above topic are by foreigner researchers.
Thus the investigator attempt to achieve the objective of
the term learning strategies in relation to intelligence, level of
aspiration and achievements of arts and science students.