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1
CHAPTER
8Motivation and Emotion
Links to Learning Objectives
ENDURING ISSUES IN
MOTIVATION & EMOTION
PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION
Explanations of motivation
HUNGER & THIRST
Biological & emotional factors
Eating disorders & obesity
SEX
Sex as a primary drive
Sexual response cycle & American
patterns of sexual behavior
Sexual orientation
OTHER IMPORTANT MOTIVES
Major stimulus motives
Aggression
Achievement & affiliation
EMOTIONS
Basic emotions
Theories of emotion
COMMUNICATING EMOTION
Nonverbal communication
Gender & cultural differences
Diversity-
Universality
Stability-Change
Mind-Body
Nature-Nurture
Person-Situation
Enduring Issues
How do motives
and emotions affect
behavior, and how
are they affected by
the external
environment?
2
Diversity-
Universality
Stability-Change
Mind-Body
Nature-Nurture
Person-Situation
Enduring Issues
Are motives and
emotions inborn or acquired?
Diversity-
Universality
Stability-Change
Mind-Body
Nature-Nurture
Person-Situation
Enduring Issues
Do motives and
emotions change significantly
over the life span?
Diversity-
Universality
Stability-Change
Mind-Body
Nature-Nurture
Person-Situation
Enduring Issues
To what extent do
individuals differ in their
motivations and emotions?
3
Diversity-
Universality
Stability-Change
Mind-Body
Nature-Nurture
Person-Situation How do motives and
emotions arise from, and in
turn affect, biological
processes?
Enduring Issues
Specific need or
desire, such as hunger,
thirst, or achievement,
that energizes and
directs behavior
otive
Feeling,
such as
fear, joy,
or
surprise,
that
energizes
and directs
behavior
motion
4
Perspectives on Motivation
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast instincts, drive-reduction theory, and arousal theory
(including the Yerkes-Dodson law) as explanations of human behavior. Distinguish between primary
and secondary drives, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and summarize Maslow’s hierarchy of motives.
Instincts
Instinct theory was popular in the early 20th century, but was ultimately disputed because:
• Most important human
behavior is learned.
• Human behavior is rarely rigid,
inflexible, unchanging, and common
to all, as is the case with instincts.
• Ascribing every conceivable human
behavior to a corresponding instinct
explains nothing.
Drive Reduction Theory
Need: Requirement of material (e.g., food, water) essential for survival
Drive: Need creates state of tension or arousal
Drive-reduction theory: Attempts to reduce the unpleasant state of tension and return the organism to homeostasis
5
Primary drives:
Unlearned drives that
are based on a
physiological state
Secondary drives:
Learned drives that are
not based on a
physiological state
Primary and Secondary Drives
Arousal Theory
Behavior stems from the
desire to maintain an
optimum level of arousal
Sometimes level of arousal
is reduced.
Other times level of arousal
is increased.
Arousal Theory
Yerkes-Dodson law: The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated before performance deteriorates
Simple task = increase level of arousal Complex task = reduce level of arousal
6
Sensation Seeking
• Thrill-seeking behavior
• Not explained by arousal
theory
• Zuckerman: A basic
motivation, some aspects
of which are inherited and
neurologically based
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation: A desire to perform a behavior
that stems from the enjoyment
derived from the behavior itself
Extrinsic motivation:A desire to perform a behavior
to obtain an external reward
or avoid punishment
A Hierarchy of Motives
Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs: Higher motives
only emerge after lower
level motives are
satisfied
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization
Needs
Source: Adapted from Motivation and Personality by Abraham H. Maslow.
Copyright © 1970. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ
7
Hunger and Thirst
Biological and Emotional Factors
Hunger and thirst are influenced by:
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the areas of the
brain that are involved in hunger and describe the
role of glucose, leptin, and ghrelin in determining a
biological need for food. Distinguish between the
biological need for food and the experience of
hunger (including the role of incentives).
Internal cues
External cues
Biological Factors
Hunger is
stimulated internally
through the brain’s
complex monitoring of:
• Fats
• Carbohydrates
• Glucose
(a simple sugar)
• Various hormones
8
Incentives (i.e. cooking aromas)
Emotional factors
Cultural factors
Social factors
Other Factors that Stimulate Hunger
1
2
3
4
Eating Disorders and Obesity
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: List the symptoms that are used to diagnose anorexia nervosa,
bulimia nervosa, muscle dysmorphia, and obesity. Describe the people who are most
likely to develop these disorders and the most likely causes of them.
Anorexia nervosa
• Approximately 1% of adolescents suffer from anorexia nervosa.
• About 90% of them are white upper- or middle-class females.
• Over 10% of those with anorexia nervosa die as a result of the disorder.
Bulimia nervosa
• Approximately 1-2% of all adolescent females have bulimia nervosa.
• Upper- and middle-class women are most at-risk.
Muscle dysmorphia
• It is more common in young males.
Obesity
• Obesity has increased more than 50% in the last decade.
• More than two-thirds of Americans are overweight or obese.
• The obesity statistics for American youth are displayed to the right.
• There really is no ―quick fix‖ for weight loss.
• Our bodies appear to be genetically ―set‖ to maintain a certain weight.
– Set-point theory
9
Applying Psychology
1. Check with your doctor before
you start to make sure your
weight loss program will be safe.
2. Increase your body’s metabolism
through regular exercise.
3. Modify your diet.
4. Reduce external cues that
encourage you to eat undesirable
foods.
5. Set realistic goals.
6. Reward yourself – in ways
unrelated to food – for small
improvements.
Sex
Sexual
motivation is
similar to, and
different from,
other primary
drives.
Biological Factors
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe how sexual motivation is both similar to and different
from other primary drives. Identify the factors (biological and nonbiological) that affect
sexual motivation.
SimilarSex is considered
a primary drive
because it is
unlearned and is
a physiological
state.
Different
Sex is vital only
to the survival of
the species, not
to the survival of
the individual.
10
Biological Factors
Testosterone (the primary male sex hormone)
– Baseline levels associated with frequency of sexual
behavior/satisfaction in males and females
Pheromones
– Some evidence that they are secreted in the sweat
glands of the armpits and in the genitals
– May influence sexual attraction
Brain
– Limbic system and insula: involved in sexual
excitement
Sexual response cycle
– Typical sequence of events characterizing sexual
response in males and females
Sexual Response Cycle
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the sexual response cycle and how it differs for
men and women. Briefly explain what is meant by the statement that ―research
indicates that the sex lives of most Americans differ significantly from media
portrayals.‖
1. Excitement: Beginning of arousal
2. Plateau: Physical changes continue
3. Orgasm: Rhythmic contractions
in vagina/penis muscles; male ejaculates
4. Resolution: Final phase,
body returned to normal state
• Refractory period: Time period when males
cannot have another orgasm
Male & Female Differences
11
Cultural and Environmental Factors
Human sexual
motivation is much more
dependent on experience
and learning than on
biology.
• Sight and smell
• Moral beliefs
• Culture of origin
• Age
• Gender equality
Frequency (Annual) of Sexual Behavior Around the World
Michael, Gagnon, Laumann, & Kolata (1994) study of 3,432 people aged 18-59.
Patterns of Sexual Behavior Among Americans
Twice a week or more:
about 1/3
A few times a month: 1/3
A few times a year or not at all: 1/3
Approx. 15 minutes
Vaginal intercourse:
over 90%
Married couples: more
satisfied and had sex more often than unmarried
persons (see also Waite
& Joyner, 2001)
Males: 6
Females: 2
17% of the men, 3% of the women: sex with over 20
partners
Men: about 25%
Women:about 15%
Average duration of intercourse
Median number of
partners overthe lifetime
Percentage who
committed adultery
Frequency of sex
Preferred form of sex
Satisfaction with sex life
12
Gender Differences in Sexuality
Men• Men are more
interested in sex
than are women.
• Aggression, power,
dominance, and
assertiveness are
more closely linked to
sex among men than
among women.
Women• Women are more
likely than men to
link sex to a close,
committed
relationship.
• Women’s sexuality
is more open to
change over
time.
Sexual Orientation
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the research evidence for and against a biological
basis for sexual orientation.
What determines sexual orientation?
Nature
Primarily influenced by genetics
Nurture
A result of early learning and socialization
Combination
Likely explanation probably involves a combination of the two
Other Important Motives
13
Other Important Motives
• Stimulus motives:
Unlearned motives that
prompt us to explore or
change the world around us
– Exploration
– Curiosity
– Manipulation
– Contact
• Aggression
• Achievement
• Affiliation
Exploration and Curiosity
• Sparked by the new and
unknown
• Directed toward no more
specific goal other than
―finding out‖
• Not unique to humans
• Disagreement about the nature
and causes of curiosity
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Briefly describe the major
stimulus motives: exploration, curiosity,
manipulation, and contact.
Manipulation and Contact
• Limited to primates,
who have agile fingers
and toes
• Manipulation: An active
process
• Contact: Can be either active
or passive
• Harlow (1958) and Harlow &
Zimmerman (1959): Studies
with monkeys demonstrating
the human need for contact
14
Aggression
Behavior aimed at doing harm
to others; also, the motive to
behave aggressively
Theories:
• Innate drive
• A vestige of our evolutionary
past that is triggered by pain
or frustration
• Social learning
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Describe the role of learning
as a determinant of aggression including evidence
for gender and cultural differences in aggressive
behavior.
Aggression: Culture and Gender
• Collectivist societies have
lower levels of aggression.
• Across cultures, males at
every age are more
aggressive than females.
• Higher levels of
aggression in males may
be due to socialization as
well as biological factors.
Achievement
Achievement motive: The need to excel and to overcome obstacles
Three separate but interrelated achievement-oriented behaviors:
• Work orientation
• Mastery
• Competitiveness: Tends to interfere with achievement
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Identify the components
of achievement behavior and the characteristics
of people who are high in achievement motivation.
Explain the factors that affect the affiliation motive
and the likelihood that a person will express their need for
affiliation.
15
Affiliation
Affiliation motive:
The need to be with others
• Common to humans and likely
to be especially strong when
people feel threatened
• Has an evolutionary basis
according to some theorists
• Expression of need depends
on a number of factors
Emotions
Fear
Surprise
Disgust
Anger
Sadness
Anticipation
Joy
Acceptance
Plutchik’s Eight Basic Emotions
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Discuss the evidence for a set of basic emotions that are
experienced by all humans.
Basic Emotions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
16
Primary and Secondary Emotions
Primary emotions • Are evident in all
cultures
• Contribute to survival
• Are associated with
distinct facial
expressions
• Are evident in
nonhuman primates
Secondary emotions• Are subtle combinations
of primary emotions
• Are not found in all
cultures
Stimuli cause physiological
changes in our bodies, and
emotions result from those
physiological changes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard
theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.
Theories of Emotion
Cognitive theories
Cannon-Bard theory
James-Lange theory
The experience of emotion
occurs simultaneously with
biological changes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard
theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.
Theories of Emotion
Cognitive theories
Cannon-Bard theory
James-Lange theory
17
Emotional experience
depends on one’s
perception or judgment
of a situation.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Compare and contrast the James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard
theory, and cognitive theories of emotion.
Theories of Emotion
Cognitive theories
Cannon-Bard theory
James-Lange theory
Communicating Emotion
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Explain the importance of facial expressions in communicating emotion and
identify the areas of the brain that are responsible for interpreting facial expressions. Describe the
role of body language, gestures, and personal space in communicating emotions.
• We convey more emotional
information in the way we express
words, not in the words we use.
• Facial expression seems to
communicate the most among
nonverbal channels of
communication.
• Evolutionary psychologists believe
that facial expression served an
adaptive function, enabling our
ancestors to compete for status,
win mates, and defend themselves.
Voice Quality and Facial Expression
18
How the Brain Reads the Face
• Activity in the amgydala
and insula in the brain are
critical for the release of
emotions.
• These same areas of the
brain also play an
important role in our ability
to correctly interpret facial
expressions.
Body Language, Personal Space, and Gestures
Gender and Emotion
Men and women:
• Don’t necessarily differ in their
physiological experience of emotion
• May react to the same situation with
very different emotions
Women:
• Are more likely to express their
emotions than men
• Are more likely to express emotions
strongly and seek help
LEARNING OBJECTIVE: Summarize the research evidence
regarding gender and cultural differences in emotion, the
role of ―display rules,‖ and whether it is advantageous to
express anger as opposed to ―holding it in.‖
Gender
19
Culture and Emotion
• Universalist position:
The face looks the same across cultures for
specific emotions.
• Culture-learning position:
Members of a culture learn the appropriate
facial expressions for emotions.
• Display rules:
Culture-specific rules that govern how,
when, and why expressions of emotion are
appropriate.
Culture
Holding Anger In“In a study that tracked a group of women over 18 years, researchers found
that those scoring high on hostility were three times more likely to die during
the course of the study than those who scored low…However, this higher level
of risk applied only to participants who said they got angry in many situations
but did not vent their anger…(Those) who reported frequent bouts of anger,
which they expressed, were in the same low-risk group as those who said they
rarely or never felt angry.”
– Page 285 (Morris & Maisto)
Lecture Activities
20
What are some
social or cultural
cues that may
encourage people
to eat?
Recognizing Emotional Expressions
Find a partner. One member of your pair will be the
EXPRESSER—he/she will facially express a few
emotions from a list. The other person will be the
INTERPRETER—he/she will attempt to identify the
emotions being facially expressed.
On the next slide are listed various emotions. The
interpreter may NOT look at the list of emotions.
Interpreters, please turn your head from the screen
and look at your partner, now.
21
How accurately were you able to
interpret your partner’s emotional
expressions? Are there other emotions
that you think would be more difficult
to identify? What are they? Are there
other emotions that you think would be
easier to identify? What are they?