Upload
jessica-gilbert
View
218
Download
2
Tags:
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Chapter One:
CHEMICALFOUNDATIONS
講義
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 2
What we’ll learn in Chapter 1• Chemistry overview• Science, theory and law, experiment• Measurement, SI units and unit conversion,
prefixes of numbers• Significant figures, rounding rules, precision
and accuracy, errors (systematic or random)• Classification of matter, states of matter,
purification and separation• Physical change, chemical change
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 3
Assignment
• 11,18,27,32,59,70,71,85
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 4
Chemistry: An Overview
• A main challenge of chemistry is to understand the connection between the macroscopic world that we experience and the microscopic world of atoms and molecules.
• You must learn to think on the atomic level.
1.1
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 5
Atoms vs. Molecules
1.1
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 6
Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules
1.1
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 7
A Chemical Reaction
1.1
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 8
A Chemical Reaction
1.1
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 9
Science
• Science is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge.
• Science is a plan of action—a procedure for processing and understanding certain types of information.
1.2
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 10
The Various Parts of the Scientific Method
(?)
(!)
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 11
Law vs. Theory
• A law summarizes what happens.
• A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happens.
1.2
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 12
Post-it note: a nice story of doing chemistry
Making observationsFormulating hypothesesPerforming experiments
How to make sticky-but-not-too-sticky adhesives?
Too sticky
Not sticky enough
Right!
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 13
Nature of Measurement
• Measurement – quantitative observation consisting of two parts:
NumberScale (unit)
• Examples:20 grams6.63 × 106.63 × 10-34-34 joule·seconds
1.3
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 14
The Fundamental SI Units
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
1.3
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 15
Table 1.1 The Fundamental SI Units
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 16
Table 1.2 The Prefixes Used in the SI System
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 17
Table 1.3 Some Examples of Commonly Used Units
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 18
Table 1.4 English-Metric Equivalents
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 19
Artist's Conception of the Lost Mars Climate Orbiter
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 20
Uncertainty in Measurement
• A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain.
• A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
• Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit (the estimated number).
1.4
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 21
Measurement of Volume Using a Buret
1.4
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 22
Precision and Accuracy
• Accuracy – agreement of a particular value with the true value
• Precision – degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity
1.4
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 23
Precision and Accuracy
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 24
Rules for Counting Significant Figures
• Nonzero integers always count as significant figures:
3456 has 4 sig figs
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 25
Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued)
• Leading zeros do not count as significant figures:
0.048 has 2 sig figs
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 26
Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued)
• Captive zeros always count as significant figures:
16.07 has 4 sig figs
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 27
Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued)
• Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a decimal point:
9.300 has 4 sig figs
150 has 2 sig figs
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 28
Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued)
• Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures: 1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly 9 pencils (obtained by counting)
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 29
Sig Figs in Mathematical Operations
• For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is the same as the number in the calculation that has the fewest significant figures:
1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381 7.4
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 30
Sig Figs in Mathematical Operations (continued)
• For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places as the measurement with the fewest number of decimal places:
23.445
+ 7.83
=31.275 31.28
1.5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 31
Concept Check
You have water in each graduated cylinder shown. You then add both samples to a beaker.
How would you write the number describing the total volume?
What limits the precision of this number?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 32
Dimensional Analysis
• Use when converting a given result from one system of units to another:– Use the equivalence statement that relates
the two units– Consider the direction of the required change
to select the correct unit factor (cancel unwanted units)
– Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor
1.6
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 33
Concept Check
What data would you need to estimate the money you would spend on gasoline to drive your car from New York to Chicago? Provide estimates of values and a sample calculation.
1.6
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 34
Temperature
• Three systems for measuring temperature:– Fahrenheit– Celsius– Kelvin
1.7
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 35
The Three Major Temperature Scales
1.7
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 36
Converting Between Scales
K = °C + 273.15 °C = K – 273.15
°C = (°F – 32)(5/9) °F = °C(9/5) + 32
1.7
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 37
Exercise
At what temperature does C = F?
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 38
Density
• Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance:
Density = mass/volume
1.8
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 39
Table 1.5 Densities of Various Common Substances* at 20° C
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 40
Classification of Matter
• Matter – anything occupying space and having mass.
• Matter exists in three states:
– Solid
– Liquid
– Gas
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 41
Classification of Matter
• Solid – rigid; has fixed volume and shape
• Liquid – has definite volume but no specific shape; assumes shape of container
• Gas – has no fixed volume or shape; takes on the shape and volume of its container
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 42
The Three States of Water
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 43
Structure of a Solid
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 44
Structure of a Liquid
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 45
Structure of a Gas
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 46
Mixtures
• Mixtures have variable composition: Homogeneous – having visibly
indistinguishable parts; solution Heterogeneous – having visibly
distinguishable parts
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 47
Homogeneous Mixtures
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 48
Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 49
Compound vs. Mixture
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 50
Simple Laboratory Distillation Apparatus
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 51
The Organization of Matter
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 52
The Organization of Matter
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 53
The Organization of Matter
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 54
The Organization of Matter
1.9
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 55
Concept Check
Sketch a magnified view (showing atoms/molecules) of each of the following:
– A heterogeneous mixture of two different compounds
– A homogeneous mixture of an element and a compound
Chapter One:
CHEMICALFOUNDATIONS
案例 /討論
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 57
Figure 1.4 The Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 58
Figure 1.5 The Various Parts of the Scientific Method
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 59
Figure 1.6 Measurement of Volume
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 60
Figure 1.7 Common Types of Laboratory Equipment Used to Measure Liquid Volume
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 61
Figure 1.9 Measurement of Volume Using a Buret
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 62
Figure 1.10 The Results of Several Dart Throws Show the Difference Between Precise
and Accurate
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 63
Figure 1.11 The Three Major Temperature Scales
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 64
Figure 1.12 Normal Body Temperature
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 65
Figure 1.13 The Three States of Water
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 66
Figure 1.16 The Organization of Matter
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 67
Figure 1.1a The Surface of a Single Grain of Table Salt
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 68
Figure 1.1b An Oxygen Atom on a Gallium Arsenide Surface
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 69
Figure 1.1c Scanning Tunneling Microscope Image
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 70
Figure 1.2 A Charged Mercury Atom
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 71
Figure 1.3a Each Grain of Sand is Composed of Tiny Atoms
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 72
Figure 1.3b Beach at Big Sur
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 73
Robert Boyle
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 74
Soda is Sold in 2-Liter Bottles- an Example of SI Units in Everyday Life
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 75
Figure 1.8 An Electronic Analytic Balance
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 76
Rounding Numbers
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 77
Liquid Nitrogen
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 78
Figure 1.14 Simple Laboratory Distillation Apparatus
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 79
Figure 1.15a A Line of the Mixture to be Separated is Placed at One End of a Sheet
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 80
Figure 1.15b The Paper Acts as a Wick to Draw up the Liquid
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 81
Figure 1.15c Component with the Weakest Attraction for the Paper Travels Faster
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 82
Mercury and Iodine Combine to Form Mercuric Iodide
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 83
Table 1.1 The Fundamental SI Units
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 84
Table 1.2 The Prefixes Used in the SI System
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 85
Table 1.3 Some Examples of Commonly Used Units
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 86
Table 1.4 English-Metric Equivalents
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 87
Table 1.5 Densities of Various Common Substances* at 20° C
Chapter One
Chemical Foundations
問答
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 89
Question
• Which of the following is an example of a quantitative observation?– Solution A is a darker red color than solution B. – The grass is green.– Substance A has a greater mass than
substance B.– The temperature of the water is 45°C.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 90
Answer
• d) The temperature of the water is 45°C.
• A quantitative observation includes a measurement (numerical) and a unit.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 91
Question
• The glassware shown below is called a buret. The buret is filled to the zero mark (at the top) with a solution and the solution is transferred to a beaker. What volume of transferred solution should be reported? – 20 mL – 22 mL– 22.0 mL– 22.00 mL– 25 mL
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 92
Answer
• c) 22.0 mL
• In a measurement, we always include one uncertain digit. The graduations on this buret are in 1-mL units, so we can estimate the volume to the tenths place.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 93
Question
• The boiling point of a liquid was measured in the lab, with the following results:
• Trial Boiling Point• 1 22.0°C ± 0.1• 2 22.1°C ± 0.1• 3 21.9°C ± 0.1
• The actual boiling point of the liquid is 28.7°C. The results of the determination of the boiling point are
– accurate and precise. – precise but inaccurate.– accurate but imprecise.– inaccurate and imprecise.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 94
Answer
• b) precise but inaccurate.
• The measurements are precise because they are all in close agreement with one another. However, they are relatively far from the true value, so they are inaccurate.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 95
Question
• _______ reflects the reproducibility of a given type of measurement.– Accuracy – Precision– Certainty– Systematic error– Random error
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 96
Answer
• b) Precision
• Measurements are precise if they are relatively close to one another, regardless of how close they are to the true answer.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 97
Question
• _______ is the agreement of a particular value with the true value.– Accuracy – Precision– Certainty– Systematic error– Random error
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 98
Answer
• a) Accuracy
• If a measurement is in close agreement with the true value, it is an accurate measurement.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 99
Question
• After performing a calculation in the lab, the display on your calculator reads “0.023060070”. If the number in the answer is to have five significant figures, what result should you report?– 0.0230 – 0.00231– 0.023060– 0.2367– 0.02306
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 100
Answer
• c) 0.023060
• The leading zeros are not significant, but the captive zero and the trailing zero are significant.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 101
Question
• How many significant figures are in the number 0.03040?– 1 – 2– 3– 4– 5
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 102
Answer
• c) 4
• The leading zeros are not significant, but the captive zero and the trailing zero are significant.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 103
Question
•The beakers below have different precisions.
•You pour the water from these three beakers into one container. What is the volume in this container reported to the correct number of significant figures?•
– 78.817 mL – 78.82 mL – 78.8 mL – 79 mL
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 104
Answer
• d) 79 mL
• In a measurement, we always include one uncertain digit. In this case, the first measurement could be 26.4 mL ± 0.1 mL, the second could be 26 mL ± 1 mL, and the third could be 26.42 mL ± 0.01 mL. When adding, the result has the same number of decimal places as the least precise measurement—in this case, to the ones place. So the answer is 26.4 + 26 + 26.42 = 78.82 mL, which must be rounded to 79 mL.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 105
Question
• Express 3140 in scientific notation.– 3.14 × 103 – 3.14 × 10-3
– 3.140 × 103
– 3.140 × 10-3
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 106
Answer
• a) 3.14 × 103
• 103 = 1000, and 3.14 × 1000 = 3140. We lose the zero because it is not significant (it is a placeholder). If the zero was significant, we should write the number as “3140.”.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 107
Question
• A solution is also a – heterogeneous mixture. – homogeneous mixture.– compound.– distilled mixture.– pure mixture.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 108
Answer
• b) homogeneous mixture.
• Solutions can be liquids in liquids (such as rubbing alcohol, which consists of isopropanol in water), solids in liquids (such as sugar water), a mixture of gases (such as air), or even a mixture of solids (such as brass, which consists of a mixture of copper and zinc).
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 109
Question
•Which of the following statements is false? – Solutions are always homogeneous
mixtures. – Atoms that make up a solid are mostly
open space. – Elements can exist as atoms or
molecules. – Compounds can exist as elements or
molecules.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 110
Answer
•d) Compounds can exist as atoms or molecules.
•Elements can be atoms (such as He) or molecules (such as O2), but compounds must exist as molecules.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 111
Richard III of England • Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England from 1483 until his death. He was the last king from the House of York, and his defeat at the Battle of Bosworth marked the culmination of the Wars of the Roses and the end of the Plantagenet dynasty. After the death of his brother King Edward IV, Richard briefly governed as regent for Edward's son King Edward V with the title of Lord Protector, but he placed Edward and his brother Richard in the Tower (see Princes in the Tower) and seized the throne for himself, being crowned on 6 July 1483.
• Two large-scale rebellions rose against Richard. The first, in 1483, was led by staunch opponents of Edward IV and, most notably, Richard's own 'kingmaker', Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. The revolt collapsed and Buckingham was executed at Salisbury, near the Bull's Head Inn. However, in 1485, another rebellion arose against Richard, headed by Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond (later King Henry VII) and his uncle Jasper. The rebels landed troops and Richard fell in the Battle of Bosworth Field, then known as Redemore or Dadlington Field, as the last Plantagenet king and the last English king to die in battle.
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 112
Raider’s lost ark
Gold idol
Booby-trapped pedestal
A bag of sand
Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 113