Chapter One

Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method

The Sociological Perspective

Sociology is the systematic study of

human society.

The Sociological Perspective

• The sociological perspective helps us to see general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals.

• It encourages us to realize that society guides our thoughts and deeds — to see the strange in the familiar.

The Sociological Perspective

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Social Forces are constantly at work, even in an intensely personal action such as suicide.

Social Integration is the key.

BenefitsBenefits of the Sociological Perspective:

The sociological perspective helps us critically assess and challenge “common sense” ideas

BenefitsBenefits of the Sociological Perspective:

The sociological perspective helps us assess both opportunities and constraints in our lives.

BenefitsBenefits of the Sociological Perspective:

The sociological perspective empowers us to be active participants in our society.

The sociological perspective helps us to live in a diverse world.

The Sociological Perspective

Global Perspective: the study of the larger world and our society’s place in it.High-income

countries(about 50 countries)

Middle-income countries

(about 80 countries)

Low-income countries(about 60 countries)

The Origins of Sociology

the rise of a factory-based industrial economythe emergence of great cities in

Europepolitical changes

The Origins of Sociology

August Comte (1798-1857)

Considered the Founder of Modern SociologyCoined the phrase: Sociology (1838)

Described Sociology as having three stages:

TheologicalMetaphysicalScientific

The Origins of Sociology

August Comte (1798-1857)

Favored positivism — a way of understanding based on science

Strongly influenced the academic discipline of Sociology in the United States

The Origins of Sociology

August Comte (1798-1857)

The term sociology comes from:Latin – socius (friend or associate)

Greek – logos (word)

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“words about human associations”

The Origins of Sociology

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

Saw striking inequalities in the new industrial society. Known for Marxist Sociology and the Social-Conflict Approach

The Origins of Sociology

GENDER & RACE: Marginal Voices

Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

Jane Addams (1860-1935)

W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

Sociological Theory

A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The goal of sociological theory is to explain social behavior in the real world. Theories are based on theoretical paradigms, sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research.

The Structural–Functional Paradigm

The structural-functional paradigm sees society as a complex system whose parts work together.It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures.

Herbert Spencer Robert MertonEmile Durkheim

The Structural–Functional Paradigm

Each social structure has social functions.The influence of this paradigm has declined in recent decades.–It focuses on stability, thereby ignoring inequalities of social class, race, and gender.

Herbert Spencer Robert MertonEmile Durkheim

The Social–Conflict Paradigm

Karl Marx W.E.B. Du Bois

The social-conflict paradigm sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change.Critical evaluation: This paradigm has developed rapidly in recent years.

The Social–Conflict Paradigm

Karl Marx W.E.B. Du Bois

It has several weaknesses:–It ignores social unity.–Like the structural-functional paradigm, it envisions society in terms of broad abstractions. It is political.

The Symbolic–Interaction Paradigm

Max Weber George Herbert Mead

The symbolic-interaction paradigm sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals.

The Symbolic–Interaction Paradigm

Max Weber George Herbert Mead

Symbolic-interactionism has a micro-level orientation.It focuses on patterns of social interaction in specific settings. Ignores class, gender, and race

The Basics of Sociological Investigation

Sociological investigation starts with two simple requirements:

(1) Use the sociological perspective.

(2) Be curious and ask questions.

Science – a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation.

Scientific sociology – the study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior.

Scientific Sociology: Basic Elements and Limitations

A concept – a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form.

A variable – a concept whose value changes from case to case.

Measurement – a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case.

Almost any variable can be measured in more than one way.

Useful Measurements

For a measurement to be useful, it must be reliable and valid.Reliability – consistency in measurement.The procedure must yield the same result if repeated.

Useful Measurements

Validity – precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure.Valid measurement means hitting the bull’s-eye of the target.

Relationships Among Variables

The scientific ideal is cause and effect – change in one variable causes change in another.The variable that causes the change is the independent variable.The variable that changes is the dependent variable.

Relationships Among Variables

Correlation – a relationship by which two variables change together.A spurious correlation is a false relationship between two or more variable caused by another. (Ice cream sales and drowning accidents)

The Ideal of Objectivity

Science demands that researchers strive for objectivity – a state of personal neutrality in conducting research.Researchers carefully hold to scientific procedures while reining in their own attitudes and beliefs.It is an ideal rather than a reality.

Interpretive Sociology

The interpretive sociologist’s job is not just to observe what people do but to share in their world of meaning.

Max Weber, who pioneered this framework, argued that the focus of sociology is interpretation.

Critical Sociology

Karl Marx rejected the idea that society exists as a “natural” system with a fixed order

The study of society that focuses on the need for desirable social change.

Gender and Research

Androcentricity, approaching an issue from the male perspective

Overgeneralizing, using data drawn from studying only one sex

Gender and Research

Gender blindness, not considering the variable of gender at all (men living with wives, wives living alone) Double standards, not judging men and women differently (Man, head of the household.)

Interference, a subject reacts to the sex of the researcher (That is not a teacher, that is a woman.)

An experiment is a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions

Research Methods

A research method is a systematic plan for doing research

A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview

Research Methods

Participant observation is a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in routine activities

Research Methods

Existing sources, is a research method in which available data is analyzed.

Research Methods

Ten steps in sociological

investigation 1)What is your topic?2)What have others already learned?

Ten steps in sociological

investigation 3)What, exactly, are your questions?

4)What will you need to carry out research

Ten steps in sociological

investigation 5)Are there ethical concerns?6)What method will you use?

Ten steps in sociological

investigation 7)How will you record the data?8)What do the data tell you?

Ten steps in sociological

investigation 9)What are your conclusions?10)How can you share what you've learned?