Chapter Twenty-Three

Late Adulthood: Biosocial Development

PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson, Grossmont College

• Prejudices about late adulthood are held by people of all ages, including children and the very old

Prejudice and Predictions

Ageism

• Ageism—a term that refers to prejudice against older people because of their age

• Why is ageism so strong?– cultural emphasis on growth, strength, and

progress– veneration of youth– increasing age segregation

Gerontology

• Gerontology—study of old age• Geriatrics—The medical specialty

devoted to old age• Two Different Perspectives

– doctors in geriatrics view aging as an illness

– gerontologists view aging as socially constructed problem

Gerontology, cont.

• Contrary to popular belief, many developmentalists now view aging, like all other periods, as marked by gains as well as losses

Demography

• A reason ageism is decreasing is that there are more aging individuals– 7 percent of world’s population now

over 65 years– 13 percent in developed nations such

as United States

Demography, cont.

• Changing shape of demographic pyramid– the population stack has shifted from a

pyramid to a square– reflects changes in recent decades—

fewer births and increased survival

• By 2030 the proportion of those over 65 is projected to double worldwide—to 15 percent

Dependents and Independence

• Dependency ratio—ratio of self-sufficient, productive adults (those between ages 15 and 65) to dependents—children and the elderly– the greater the number of

dependents compared to workers, the higher the dependency ratio

Dependents and Independence, cont.

• What are some of the problems cultures may face as baby boomers age?– crisis in geriatric medicine

• Medicare, Social Security, and quality private health insurance in jeopardy?

• entire tax and caregiving burden may fall on shrinking middle cohort

Reasons Not to Worry• Technology and science combining to allow

more production with fewer workers• Inverse ratio between birth rates and

longevity• Most people over 65 are not dependent

– only 5 percent in nursing homes or hospitals– elderly married couples take care of each other– in other nations, elderly live with their children

• Distinctions based on age, health, and social well-being– young-old—healthy and vigorous,

financially secure, active in family and community life

– old-old—have major physical, mental or social loses, but still have some strengths

– oldest-old—dependent on others for almost everything

Young, Old, and Oldest

Young, Old, and Oldest, cont.

• Some gerontologists like the following terms better– optimal aging– usual aging– impaired aging

Anti-Aging Measures

• Aging has many causes– wear and tear– cellular accidents– declining immune system– programmed senescence

Calorie Restriction

• Mammals can almost double their life span if they eat half as much food throughout adulthood– proven for mice and rats; probably true

for monkeys, chimps, and dogs– true for humans—probably but must be

carefully done

• Pack more nutrients into fewer calories

Calorie Restriction, cont.

• Older people take drugs that are considered harmless, but do affect nutritional requirements

• Mammals with reduced calorie intake are stronger, more vital, and younger in their appearance as long as they consume adequate vitamins and minerals

Prejudice and Delusion

• Calorie restriction may arise from prejudice and delusion

• An important question: what impact would calorie restriction have on the quality of life?– would people be constantly hungry,

agitated, irritable?

Primary Aging in Late Adulthood

• Primary aging—all irreversible and universal physical changes over time

• Secondary aging—physical illnesses or changes common to aging but caused by individual’s health habits, genes, and other influences

Primary Aging in Late Adulthood, cont.

• People vary in their selective optimization with compensation—the choosing of healthy activities that compensate for primary aging being experienced

Changes in Appearance

• Appearance changes as time passes– in ageist society, people who look old

are treated as old– children quick to see the elderly as old-

fashioned

• Wrinkles, hair changes– hair becomes grayer– hair all over body becomes thinner

The Skin and Hair

• Alteration in overall body height, shape, and weight

• With weight loss may come muscle loss– reduces flexibility

• Self-perception can lead to a feeling of fragility and a fear of falling

Body Shape and Muscles

Body Shape and Muscles, cont.

• Falls do occur– injuries may require medical treatment– exercise a very effective preventative

• weightlifting should be part of the exercise routine

• Flexibility is one of the best predictors of vitality

Dulling of the Senses

• Sense Organs– Until a century ago, sensory losses

could be devastating– Today, they do not have to be

debilitating

Vision

• Only about 10 percent of elderly see well

• Cataracts—shrinking of lens, causing vision to be cloudy, opaque, and distorted– by 70, 30 percent have some visual loss

due to cataracts

Vision, cont.

• Glaucoma—optic nerve damage, causing sudden and total blindness– 1 percent of people in 70s; 10 percent in

90s

• Senile macular degeneration—retinal deterioration– 4 percent under 75; and 18 percent over

75

Hearing

• Presbycusis—age-related hearing loss– 40 percent over 65 experience it

• Tinnitis—buzzing or ringing– 10 percent of elderly experience it

Compensation for Sensory Loss• Compensation, not passive

acceptance, is crucial• Adjustment means finding balance

between maintaining normal activities and modifying routines to fit diminished capacities– new technology available– specialists help connect techniques,

technology, and people– personal determination helps

Compensation for Sensory Loss, cont.

• Critical factor is recognition of the problem and willingness to change

• Attitudes make sensory impairments less isolating

Compensation for Sensory Loss, cont.

• Younger adults and social practices have not caught up– medical insurance may not pay for

devices or counseling– elderspeak—way of speaking to elderly

that resembles baby talk• simple, short sentences• exaggerated emphasis• slower rate, higher pitch, and repetition

Major Body Systems

• Primary and secondary aging combine to make all major body systems slower and less efficient, eventually causing death

• Exercise/physical activity is beneficial– helps maintain strength of heart muscle and

lungs– lack can lead to heart attack– improves overall quality of life

• Compensation entails– medical technology– specialist advice– personal determination– cultural accommodation

Compensation for Aging Organs

Compression of Morbidity

• Compression of morbidity—increasing time for better quality of life without diseases or disability and once morbidity occurs, reducing amount of time remaining before death

Compression of Morbidity, cont.

• Healthier person likely to be– intellectually alert– socially active

• Medical science has made compression of morbidity possible – still, each individual must do his or her part

Theories of Aging

• Many Theories of Aging (300)– we will look at two

• Wear and Tear• Genetic Aging Theory

Wear and Tear Theory• Compares body to machine• Body wears down because of

accumulated exposure to inadequate nutrition, disease, pollution, and other stresses– women who are never pregnant live longer– overweight people tend to sicken and die

younger– today there are replacement “parts”

• Wear out our bodies by living our lives

Genetic Aging

• What makes entire body age?– focus on whole body rather than individual parts

• Some theorists propose that aging is the normal, natural result of the genetic plan for the species

• Genetic programming to reach biological maturation at fixed times and genetically programmed to die after a fixed number of years

• Maximums and Averages– maximum life span (humans 115)– average life expectancy

• affected by culture, historical and socioeconomic factors

Life Expectancy

• Epigenetic theory provides some explanations for primary aging

• Early adulthood: only nongenetic events are likely to cause death

• Genetic diseases that affect older people may be passed on from generation to generation

Selective Adaptation

Cellular Aging

• Cellular Accidents– accumulation of minor accidents that

occur during cell reproduction cause aging– mutations occur in process of DNA repair

• instructions for creating new cells become imperfect

• cellular imperfections and declining ability to detect and correct them can lead to harmless changes, small functional loss, or fatal damage

Free Radicals• Some of body’s metabolic processes can

cause electrons to separate from their atoms and can result in atoms with unpaired electron—oxygen free radicals– can produce errors in cell maintenance and

repair, leading to cancer, diabetes, etc.

• Antioxidants—compounds that nullify the effects of oxygen free radicals by forming a bond with their unattached oxygen electron– vitamins A, C, and E, mineral selenium

Errors in Duplication• Hormonal changes triggered in brain

that switch off the genes promoting growth

• The Hayflick Limit – genetic clock—according to one theory of

aging, a regulatory mechanism in the DNA of cells that regulates the aging process

– cells stop replicating at a certain point

• Evidence for genetic regulation from diseases producing premature aging

The Immune System

• Diminished immune system is weakened

• Two types of attack cells reduced in numbers– B cells in bone marrow, which create

antibodies that attack invading bacteria and viruses

– T cells, which produce substances that attack infection

• Scientific support for the immune system theory comes from research on HIV/AIDS– HIV can be latent for many years, but

eventually becomes AIDS

• Individuals with weakened immune systems do not live as long as those with stronger immune systems; thus, immunity not simply result of aging

Research on Immune Deficiency

Who Cares About Living Longer?

• Most people are not interested in living longer– evidence for lack of interest found in daily

habits of many adults– in research budgets, less money spent on

preventing aging than on treating diseases

– people would rather have better quality of life than lengthen it

The Centenarians

• People 100 years of age or older

Other Places, Other Stories

• Remote regions where large numbers of people have unusual longevity have been found in– Georgia, Russia– Pakistan– Peru

Other Places, Other Stories, cont.

• Regions share 4 characteristics– diet is moderate, mostly veggies and herbs– work continues throughout life– family and community are important– exercise and relaxation part of daily life

• But birth records of these regions not verifiable

The Truth About Life After 100

• Habits and culture allow for better aging

• Increasing numbers are reaching this age– some in very good health– centenarians have shorter period of

morbidity before death