Chapterr 13

Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union

The Crisis of the Union

• Causes of Violence in 1850’s– Tradition of compromise• Compromises ultimately hardened positions of both

northerners + southerners– Sectionalism

– Arguments about extension of slavery into territories• This was at heart of most compromises

– Admission of TX to Union in 1845, acquisition of Mexican Cession in 1848, + CA Gold Rush of 1848

The Crisis of the Union• Compromise– At heart of most political systems– Compromises created expectations + precedents

that some saw as transitional + others as permanent– Sectionalism

• “sections” = different regions with particular interests associated with economic + government organization, but also having particular attitudes about nature of US, its purpose + meaning + future

• Slavery becomes symbols of sectionalism, but its far more complex

• Sections usually identified as North, South, + West, but actually more complex


• Extension of slavery into territories– Slavery a symbolic issue• North hated it; South defended it as a right• Not even primarily about injustice of system, despite

northern rhetoric• About economic system US would be built upon,

lifestyle it would encourage, place of + opportunities for individuals


• Texas, Mexican Cession, Gold Rush– These were tipping point, bringing whole

carefully negotiated balance of sections down– Surge of population West accentuated sectional

conflicts–Manifest Destiny increased acceptance of

American duty to spread republican institutions to Pacific• But whose republican institutions?

– Aristocratic traditions + slavery of South?– Democratic, reform-minded culture of North/Midwest?


• The Missouri Compromise– Issue of slavery a divisive issue at Constitutional

Convention + before– But it became a true crisis in 1819 when MO applied

for statehood– By this time, a clear line established between slave-

states + free states – Mason-Dixon line, PA-DE border– West of PA, dividing line was Ohio River– States of Northwest Territory free by act of Congress– KY south of OH River + settled by Virginians – slave– But MO presented opportunity for whole new set of

negotiations

The Crisis of the Union• MO Territory settled by southerners, but mostly family

farmers• Planters with slaves moved further south into cotton

country• Several 100 slaves in MO, but few enough that anti-slavery

northerners hadn’t considered issue until application for statehood– Actually more slaves in NJ at time than in MO

• Abolition laws in NY + NJ forbade new slaves, freed slaves when they reached certain age, + didn’t free some above certain age – slaves still held there legally, but gradual emancipation provided for

– Those who did consider issue assumed MO would emancipate slaves there, compensating owners for loss

– MO settlers had little reason to support slavery, but they were southerners; they assumed blacks should be slaves + judged economic success as ability to buy slaves

The Crisis of the Union• Antislavery advocates pointed out

that all but slender strip of MO north of point where Ohio River runs into Mississippi

• In their minds, logical that slavery should be banned

• Southerners disagreed; if river ended, so did prohibition

• When MO applied for statehood as slave state, NY Rep. James Tallmadge proposed ban on importation of slaves into MO + gradual emancipation of those already there– MO rejected it; northern majority in

House blocked admission– Southern controlled Senate retaliated

by blocking admission of ME

Ohio River marks IL’s southern border with KY; Ohio River feeds into Mississippi at IL’s southernmost tip – only region south of Joplin/Springfield is south of Ohio River

The Crisis of the Union• As battle heated up, southerners raised 3

constitutional arguments:– Equal rights: Congress couldn’t impose conditions on MO

it hadn’t imposed on other territories seeking statehood– Slavery fell under sovereignty of state governments –

under Constitution, states controlled internal affairs + domestic institutions, like marriage . . . + slavery

– Congress had no authority to infringe on property rights of individual slaveowners

• They also created more aggressive justifications for slavery– In Revolutionary age, they argued it was a “necessary

evil;” now it was a “positive good”• “Christ himself gave sanction to slavery”

The Crisis of the Union• Pres. Monroe not greatly disturbed, simply urged Congress

to work out a compromise– Virginian of revolutionary generation who still hoped slavery

would die out peacefully

• Henry Clay created package that did so, earning title “Great Compromiser” – Proposed MO be admitted as slave state, as Missourians

themselves wished + southerner demanded– To assuage northerners, he proposed that MO’s southern

boundary – close to mouth of OH River – be extended through rest of LA Purchase, slavery prohibited north of boundary forever

– Areas south of boundary would decide issue for themselves when applying for statehood

– Proposed ME be admitted as free state– 22 states evenly divided between slave + free; this plan maintained

that balance


• Missouri Compromise hailed as great success– But nature of agreements misinterpreted

• Southerners viewed it as permanent acknowledgment of “peculiar institution”

• Northerners saw it as stopgap in road to abolition

• Politicians avoided divisive issue of slavery for next 20 yrs.– Strategy worked as long as boundaries unchanged– As concept of Manifest Destiny increasingly

accepted, threat crept back into national psyche

The Crisis of the Union• Texas– Family + plantation agriculture established in MO + AK

over 1830’s– Areas west to Rockies explored by Maj. Stephen Long in

1820’s, labeled “Great American Desert” + deemed unsuited to farming of any kind

– Those seeking new land looked south to Mexican Province of TX• Following independence from Spain, Mexican government used

land grants to encourage both Mexicans + Americans to settle there

• Moses Austin, a CT Yankee, recognized area as excellent pasture for cattle, close enough to New Orleans ease shipping + suited to cotton production– He began negotiations for land grant allowing him to bring settlers into

region

The Crisis of the Union• Texas, con’t.– After father’s death, Stephen Austin finalized deal in 1821

• Austin licensed to bring 300 American families into TX, each to receive 177 acres of farmland + 13,000 acres of grassland

• Settlers were expected to abide by Mexican law, adopt Spanish language, + observe Catholic faith– Some did (incl. Austin), but most didn’t– But Austin did ban Protestant clergy from province, + when ragtag force

from LA seized a region just inside TX border, Austin led forces driving them out – a good Mexican citizen

• But American settlers did find their way in – land 1/10 cost of land in LA + available in larger amounts

• By 1834, 15,000 of 20,000 “white” settlers from US, + culture far more “American” than Mexican

• Settlers prospered + paid taxes; no problems with Mexican government until Mexico abolished slavery in 1829

The Crisis of the Union• Texas, con’t.– Slavery already established as integral part of TX

cotton production, about 3,000 slaves already there• Austin + other grant-holders requested + got exemption

– But as Mexico attempted to increase control over province in 1830’s, tensions rose – American settlers splitting into 2 camps• “Peace party” – led by Austin + other long-time settlers,

they were happy with Mexican rule + just sought more political autonomy– Austin again won concessions from Mexican government

• “War party” – led mostly by recent immigrants from GA, they demanded independence– Feared government might limit/abolish slavery

The Crisis of the Union• Texas, con’t.

– Gen. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power in Mexico in 1833

– Mexican politics characterized by petty squabbling since independence; he hoped to reduce that by promoting a sense of Mexican nationality

– He centralized Mexican government, cancelled concessions Austin had recently won, cut American trading privileges in Santa Fe, + indicated TX would be expected to conform more fully to government policies

– Texans feared loss of autonomy, economic connections with US, + fate of slavery

– When Santa Anna appointed a military commandant for TX, small group of Anglo + Hispanic Texans rebelled, seizing only military garrison in TX at San Antonio – the Alamo

The Crisis of the Union• Texas, con’t.– Santa Anna welcomed rebellion; chance to rally

Mexican people around a national cause– He personally led army of 6,000 into TX• 1st order of business to defeat rebels at Alamo• 2nd to establish control over Goliad, where small fort

also overtaken• 3rd – move east into region where Sam Houston

trying to raise army

– Rebel cause seemed completely hopeless, + would have been if not for PR

The Crisis of the Union• The Alamo– Synonymous with patriotic heroism; really just

stubborn foolishness– 200+ Texans barricaded in compound with no

possible escape• 2 well-known figures among them: James Bowie + Davy

Crockett• Their position hopeless, but they were positioned to do

disproportionate damage to Santa Anna’s army, so he chose to wait them out, only attacking after 10 days + at some cost to his army

• Ordered all prisoners executed; a few women freed• Bowie + Crockett soon presented as patriotic martyrs by

American press, slaughtered by barbaric Catholic tyrant

The Crisis of the Union• Goliad

– 2 weeks later, Santa Anna executed 365 Texans who had surrendered at Battle of Goliad

– Texans now rallied against Mexican forces

• Sam Houston– Further east, Houston had been trying to raise an army

• He was having little success; rather few Texans really supported rebellion + even fewer willing to face professional Mexican troops

– Houston an old friend of Andrew Jackson – well-connected– American papers seized on Bowie + Crockett + stories of

massacres by “foreign” + “Catholic” barbarians, likely encouraged by Houston

– Recruits arrived from all over US

The Crisis of the Union• Republic of Texas

– In April, 1836, Houston routed Mexican army at Rio San Jacinto + took Santa Anna hostage

– He was forced to recognize TX’s independence + a boundary well beyond what province’s had been

– Santa Anna repudiated agreement upon release, but did not push issue

– Houston soon inaugurated as president of republic patterned on US

– TX legalized slavery + sent minister to Washington in hopes of annexation

– Jackson liked idea, but knew better than to raise specter of slavery debate – a hot topic at time

– Recognized Republic of TX, mostly to spare successor having to, a possible liability – but only on last day in office

The Crisis of the Union• Republic of Texas, con’t.

– New President, Van Buren, refused to bring issue before Congress, fearing war with Mexico +, worse, possible civil war:

“a desperate death-struggle . . . Between the North and the South; a struggle involving the probability of a dissolution of the Union”– TX now worried about Mexican invasion + sought ally in

Europe• They offered Belgium land in return for loan + military

presence – US warned them off• They approached Britain next; they were willing, coveting

cotton + hoping to discourage further US expansion– Slavery an issue – Britain recently abolished slavery + public hostile to

it– Relationship entirely commercial

The Crisis of the Union• US uneasy about British influence in TX

– Tensions with Britain also growing in OR Country– Pacific Northwest claimed by multiple nations since early 1800’s

• Spain had claimed it, but their influence never extended beyond San Francisco– Mexico’s northern border established at 42° in 1819, but actual claim even

shakier than Spain’s

• Russia had established string of fur-trapping stations south from AK to 100 mi. north of San Francisco– But no actual presence after 1820’s, having trapped sea otters to near extinction

+ Russia withdrew claims to anything south of 54° 40’ – AK’s southern border

• This left Britain + US claiming a now clearly defined territory -- 42° to 54° 40’ -- which they agreed to occupy jointly– Neither had any great actual presence – several 100 trappers– Beginning in 1825, these trappers gathered once a yr. for “rendezvous” held by

buyers for major fur-trading companies– Much drinking + carousing, but also some exchange of information, especially

trappers’ knowledge of region’s geography, which agents took back east– It slowly became clear that, however difficult, Great American Desert could be

crossed with wagons + Pacific reached


• American interest in OR increased dramatically in 1842 with Navy’s glowing report of Puget Sound’s excellent harbors– New England merchants engaged in lively trade

with China – this was good news

• That yr. also saw about 100 farmers emigrate to Willamette Valley, sending back reports of fertile soil + mild climate

• Rush soon on

The Crisis of the Union• Independence, MO– Following Mexican independence, Americans – formerly

banned from NM + CA by Spain – allowed to trade in Santa Fe• Annual wagon train went from Independence to Santa Fe for 14

yrs

– Now specializing outfitting of expeditions, Independence became starting point for trek to OR• 1st of great OR wagon trains organized 1843 – about 1,000

emigrants, 100’s of wagons, several hundred cattle, horses, mules . . .

• A route quickly established + pretty easily followed• Deep ruts soon worn in thick sod + even through sandstone• But even before these obvious signs, one need only follow trail of

broken wagons, discarded furniture, cattle skeletons, + occasional simple gravestones

The Crisis of the Union• By 1845, 7,000 residents of Willamette +

Columbia valleys; over 300,000 by 1860• Residents had established territorial

government in 1843 + began calling for annexation– A few eastern politicians supportive, but mostly

only to taunt British – but joint occupation was becoming a bit tense, if not seriously threatened – so it seemed

• Around this time that “Manifest Destiny” coined, in large part in reference to OR

The Crisis of the Union• California– On reaching Snake River on OR Trail, some headed

south on CA Trail along Sacramento River– Numbers not significant, but enough to facilitate

trade• New England merchants soon buying sea otter pelts +

shipping to China• They also began buying leather + tallow for New

England’s growing shoe industry from Californios – Mexican ranchers

– Only about 700 settlers by 1840’s, + many held land by dubious means• They increasingly wanted to emulate TX, mostly to

protect land that was essentially stolen


• Election of 1844– 1843 saw Midwesterners calling for end to joint

occupation of OR• Bipartisan convention of Dems. + Whigs met +

demanded US seize OR up to 54° 40’

– South had already begun to push issue of TX• In 1843, John C. Calhoun told Congress TX must be

annexed as growing British influence there might lead to abolition of slavery there– He won support of some northern Dems., but most Whigs

rejected any additional slave states + worried about likely war with Mexico – a war for which they had little claim to moral legitimacy

• While measure defeated 2-1 in Senate, issue sparked renewed tensions over sectional issues


• Election of 1844, con’t.– 2 most likely presidential candidates, Clay +

Van Buren, alarmed to see TX annexation becoming major campaign issue• Whig party already strained over slavery issue +

Clay knew it might split in 2• Van Buren had same problem, Dems. deeply divided

into pro- + antislavery factions• If they took opposite stands, party structure might

break down as voters voted on TX + not along party lines• They met quietly + agreed both would oppose

annexation + compete on less divisive issues

The Crisis of the Union• Election of 1844, con’t.– Their bargain gave Tyler unexpected opportunity

• He could run as 3rd candidate pushing for annexation, a very popular position

• Neither Clay nor Van Buren disturbed by announcement – he had no party behind him

– But Manifest Destiny Dems suddenly invoked little-known + long neglected party rule – presidential candidate had to win two-thirds of delegates to win convention, not just simple majority• Van Buren had declared himself against annexation; Pro-TX

Dems numbered well over one-third– Van Buren screwed

• After 8 ballots, convention turned to dark horse candidate – James Polk of TN

The Crisis of the Union• Election of 1844, con’t.

– Polk not yet 50 + a protégé of Jackson – “Young Hickory”• Agreed with Van Buren on most issues, bit personally supported annexation – perfect

compromise candidate• Whigs didn’t know who he was + responded with sarcasm

– He hadn’t sought nomination, but was well-known in political circles– Gov. of TN + served in Congress for 14 yrs., several as Speaker– Well-read + widely recognized as skillful legislator

– Clay initially pleased by choice, assuming easy win• Partyless Tyler + little-known Polk would divide pro-TX vote• Anti-TX vote, including antislavery Dems who would have voted for Van Buren, his• Then Tyler withdrew, + it became clear Manifest Destiny was winning increasing

support• Clay began to waffle on expansion, disgusting anti-annexation Whigs, especially in

NY– This cost him election; NY key state in determining outcome– Clay lost state by 5,000 votes, including whole counties that had voted Whig for past 10 yrs.

– Encouraged by results + goaded by Sec. of State Calhoun, Tyler moved on TX question• Didn’t have two-thirds vote in Senate for treaty, but used a joint resolution requiring

simple majority• Approved 3 days before Polk’s inauguration – TX 28th state


• Polk’s Presidency– Polk announced from beginning he’d only serve 1 term– His stated goals annexation of TX, acquisition of NM +

CA from Mexico, + annexation of OR– TX done, so he turned to OR

• Embraced slogan “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight”• Threatened war with Britain

– A bluff; he knew Britain couldn’t afford a war + neither could US – he was already planning war with Mexico

• Presented acceptance of continuation of current northern border with Canada – 49° north latitude – as northern boundary of American Oregon as a concession to Britain– OR essentially cut in half– Except for 1 adjustment in 1872, US’s northern border unchanged

since


• Polk’s Presidency, con’t.– Polk very candid in designs on CA + NM

• US had no legal claim, nor could it claim, as it did for TX + OR, that they were peopled largely by Americans – very few in NM + only 700 in CA vs. about 6,000 Californios

• Offered Mexico $30 million; when they refused, he pushed for war

• Delivered address to Congress (written long before) asking for declaration of war because Mexico owed $3 million to American banks – very weak case

• He also ordered Gen. Zachary Taylor to move 1,500 troops from accepted border of Nueces River in TX to disputed border of Rio Grande

• In April 1846, 16 soldiers killed in skirmish with a Mexican patrol (Polk had made clear to Taylor that purpose was to provoke Mexico to make 1st move)


• War with Mexico– Feigning moral outrage, Polk delivered pre-written

speech declaring that a state of war already existed because of Mexican aggression• Constitutionally flawed – no state of war until Congress

declares one• But patriotic fervor prevailed, + Congress + Senate rubber-

stamped declaration

– Mexican army larger than US’s, but troops ill-equipped, demoralized by endless civil war, + commanded by officers appointed by status rather than ability

– US conquered much of country

The Crisis of the Union• Stephen W. Kearney occupied Santa Fe without resistance in summer

1846– He marched on to CA, where he found Americans had already won nearly

bloodless revolution + established Bear Flag Republic

• In Sept., Taylor moved on Mexico– Polk disliked Taylor, + while he won 2 significant victories, Polk used escape

of a Mexican garrison as excuse to divert many of Taylor’s troops to Gen. Winfield Scott• Became national hero anyway in Feb. 1847 on winning total victory when attacked

by Santa Anna himself

– In March, Scott landed in Vera Cruz + fought way to Mexico City, capturing 3,000 men + 8 generals along way, declaring victory Sept. 14, 1847

• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 1848– US got Rio Grande as TX boundary, CA, + NM – one-third of Mexico,

because US could– US paid Mexico $15 million + assumed $3 million debt owed American

citizens– US also earned bitterness of Mexican people


• US also earned internal division–War initially inspired surge of patriotism– “Conscience Whigs” opposed from beginning,

warning of southern conspiracy • Extension of slavery into new western states• Control of government• Undermining of Jeffersonian ideal of freeholder

society

–Whigs grew bolder following 1846 elections• Whigs won control of Congress, seemingly a

rejection of Polk’s expansionist policies

The Crisis of the Union• Wilmot Proviso– Polk’s policies split Dems

• Northern Dems joined with antislavery Whigs to oppose extension of slavery– David Wilmot of PA proposed prohibition of slavery in any

territories acquired from Mexico – Wilmot Proviso » Southern commentators voiced fears of dissolution» Passed in House, blocked by southern dominated Senate

• Dem expansionists even more aggressive in response– Polk, Sec. of State Buchanan, + Sens. Stephen A. Douglas (IL) +

Jefferson Davis (MS) called for continued war for Mexican territory south of Rio Grande

– But Southern leaders opposed, including Calhoun» Concerns about cost, but also assimilation of Mexicans» “Ours is a government of the white man.” – Calhoun

– Polk + Buchanan abandoned dreams in order to unify Dems before next election


• Free Soil– 1848 election dominated by concerns produced

by war• Rejection of Wilmot Proviso reinforced concerns

about “Slave Power” conspiracy• 1000’s of northerners responded with free soil

movement– Depicted slavery as threat to republican liberties + white

freeholders– Focused of preserving West for white yeoman farmers– Rejected abolitionist focus on sinfulness of slavery +

natural rights of African Americans– Free Soilers often as racist as Southerners, sometimes more

so

The Crisis of the Union• Election of 1848

– Dems nominated Sen. Lewis Cass of MI• Dull but competent• Advocated purchase of Cuba, annexation of Yucatan Peninsula + rest of OR• Refused to take stand on slavery in West in hopes of maintaining party loyalty

– Introduced idea of squatter sovereignty – “popular sovereignty”– Alienated many northern Dems further, who joined new Free Soil Party

– Whigs nominated Gen. Zachary Taylor• LA slave owner, but hadn’t taken position on western slavery• Popular war hero• Course, cranky, + blunt; acknowledged he had never voted in his life

– Free Soil Party nominated Van Buren• Far more able candidate than either major party, + he knew he had no real

chance• He genuinely supported free soil, but also wanted to punish southern Dems who

prevented his nomination in 1844• His name on ballot determined election

– Taylor won 47% of pop. vote to Cass’s 42%• But Taylor won majority of electoral votes only because Van Buren had won

enough votes in NY to cost Cass it’s electoral votes + presidency• A replay of 1844

The Crisis of the Union• Crisis of 1850

– Congressional Whigs hoped Taylor’s victory would cool southern passions over Wilmot Proviso + Free Soil

– They also assumed Taylor would be a figurehead president• He might have accepted that had events allowed• But he was soon forced into tense circumstance + reacted angrily

when criticized

– CA Gold Rush• Jan. 1848, workers building a sawmill for John Sutter in Sierra

Nevada foothills found gold flecks in water channel built to power mill• Sutter tried to keep it secret, but by May Americans from all over CA

pouring into hills• 1849 saw 80,000 people descend on CA from all over world• “Forty-Niners” extracted $10 million in gold by yr’s end

– Most lived in crowded, chaotic towns + mining camps, + they demanded creation of territorial governments to protect lives + property

– They went on to argue that numbers + wealth warranted immediate statehood

The Crisis of the Union• Crisis of 1850, con’t.

– Hoping to avoid lengthy debate over slavery, Taylor urged CA to apply immediately• By Nov. 1849, they had ratified state constitution prohibiting slavery – it

was waiting for Congress when it convened in Dec.• Taylor, a slaveowner, never believed defense of southern slavery required

its extension into territories• He hoped to strengthen Whig Party in North by urging Congress to

accept CA as a free state, thus appealing to northern Dems + Free Soilers

– Southerners caught completely off-guard• They – + everybody else – had assumed Mexican Cession would be

populated slowly + at least in part by southerners• When time came for creation of states, at least part of CA would logically

apply as a slave state• Those hopes now being dashed before a territorial government even

accepted• Balance of power in Washington also threatened – + South feared

disadvantage could be permanent

The Crisis of the Union• Crisis of 1850, con’t.

– Some southerners threatened secession, but most settled on blocking CA’s admission until federal government guaranteed future of slavery

– 3 solutions proposed• Calhoun, near death, made 2 arguments

– Asserted right of states to secede from Union + proposed Constitutional amendment creating dual presidency – permanently balancing power

– Argued Congress had no constitutional authority to regulate slavery in territories» A convoluted argument ignoring fact that Congress had done just that –

banning it in Northwest territory in 1787, again in MO Compromise, + then extending that ban to rest of LA Purchase

• A 2nd solution proposed extending MO Compromise line west to Pacific– Slave owners guaranteed access to some western territory, including a separate

state in southern CA– Favored by most southerners

• Popular sovereignty– 1st suggested by Lewis Cass in 1848 + now supported by Stephen A. Douglas of IL– Politicians liked fact that it removed an explosive issue from national politics– Local settlers appreciated fact that it put power in their own hands– But concept vague in its details: could a ban be imposed when a territory 1st

organized or must it wait until population large enough to write constitution + apply for statehood?


• Crisis of 1850, con’t.– Southerners announced refusal to consider CA

statehood – Taylor furious: national pride, prosperity, +

security demanded CA’s immediate acceptance• Angered southerners further by resolving boundary

dispute between TX + NM Territory in NM’s favor• Decision had nothing to do with TX being slave state• TX already large + claim weak• Issue demonstrates tensions around slavery – every

question linked to slavery + alleged conspiracy


• Compromise of 1850– Clay sought to cap career as Great Compromiser by

proposing permanent solution to question of slavery in Mexican Cession• His MO Compromise had settled same question in LA Purchase

– Omnibus Bill a genuine compromise, requiring each side to give something up in interest of common good – neither side ultimately willing• CA admitted as free state• Remaining areas organized as territories with no reference to slavery

– Southerners given possibility of future slave states

• TX border dispute resolved as Taylor had ruled– TX given face-saving concessions, including federal assumption of its sizable

debt

• Abolition of slave trade in Washington, DC– In return, southerners got stronger Fugitive Slave Act


• Compromise of 1850, con’t.– Bill would have sailed through Congress 20 yrs. before,

but pace of change + hysteria it caused made extremists of all sides – no one willing to compromise

– Northerners refused to accept Fugitive Slave Act– Southerners refused to accept end of slave trade in

capital – which was only a symbol– Taylor + his supporters resented compensation of TX in

any way– Bill only inflamed tensions further

• Fire-eaters

– Voted down; Taylor would have vetoed anyway on TX issue alone


• Compromise of 1850, con’t.– Omnibus Bill picked up by Dem Stephen A. Douglas– Carved it into 6 different bills maneuvered

individually through Congress• Created support for each through relentless back-room

political dealing

– A brilliant strategy, but hardly a compromise• A compromise creates consensus + restores cooperation• This didn’t; sectional tensions as bad or worse afterwards

– Southern commentators already urging South to prepare for secession

• Only 4 of 60 senators voted for all 6 bills; only 11 voted for 5 of 6

• Only 28 of 240 reps voted for all 6

The Crisis of the Union• Douglas + supporters thought Compromise

would last at least a generation – didn’t last a decade

• Tensions inflamed by Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852• Franklin Pierce’s election same year also set

stage for renewed conflict– Seemed like good choice – northerner generally

sympathetic to Southern concerns– But administration dominated by Jefferson Davis

(MS), his Sec. of War• Davis pro-slavery, but no fire-eater• With Pierce’s support, he revived expansionist agenda:

Cuba, HI, Central America – filibusters


• Transcontinental Railroad– A line linking CA to rest of US inevitable– Davis sought to get it built from a southern city• Whatever eastern city got line instantly rich

– Technically, best route through TX• No mountains except for southern NM – keeping line

flat would require building in Mexico• Davis sent James Gadsden to Mexico City – bought

30,000 sq. mi. for $10 million – Gadsden Purchase• Davis seemingly got huge boon for South + major

national project – maybe enough to launch presidential ambitions

The Crisis of the Union• Transcontinental Railroad, con’t.

– Douglas wanted railroad built from Chicago, in his home state• This route had drawbacks

– Crossed several mountain ranges– Ran through unorganized territory beyond MO – areas left to Indians– Only a series of federal forts through region protected overland trail

• Because region had no territorial governments, southerners could block plan simply by refusing to organize governments west of MO – they had necessary votes

• Douglas planned to build southern support with slavery issue• Introduced KS-NE Act 1854, organizing 2 territories in region

– Bill repealed section of MO Compromise that banned slavery in new territory– Douglas called for issue to be decided by popular sovereignty, claiming it the only

democratic solution– Everyone knew NE, bordering free state IA, would end up free– But KS bordered MO, where slavery passionately defended– Southerners took bait; Douglas’s popularity in South soared– To win northern support, Douglas claimed KS not suited to plantation agriculture +

would become free– Bill passed, but only because Pres. Pierce convinced 22 northern Dems to change

their votes

The Crisis of the Union• Removal of Indians + creation of territorial

governments a 1st step toward clearing way for railroad• Passage of KS-NE Act fueled Douglas’s presidential

ambitions– He presented himself as broker between sections

• To southerners, he would have opened KS to slavery• To northerners, he would have delivered Transcontinental Railroad

– While most northern Dems supported him, Free Soilers + Whigs vilified him as “doughface”• Term also used against Pierce + Dem candidate – not Douglas but

James Buchanan• Whig party, + Dems to lesser degree fragmenting

– When southern Whigs voted for KS-NE Act, northern Whigs left party– KS-NE Act final straw for many, leading directly to founding of Republican

Party by northern Whigs, Free Soilers, + former Dems

The Crisis of the Union• The Republican Party

– A spontaneous eruption following passage of KS-NE Act– Party’s demand that KS-NE Act be repealed so popular that party won

control of House in mid-term elections of 1854 – only months after Act’s passage + party’s actual formation

– Began as single-issue party – no more expansion of slavery• Former Whigs leading party knew Free Soilers, with similar platform, never won

over 10% of national vote• So they built more comprehensive program

– Insisted Transcontinental railroad be built from Chicago – stealing Douglas’s major initiative– Appealed to Dem small farmers by pushing for Homestead Act – free western land to families

who would settle + farm it– Demanded high tariff + liberal immigration policy, winning support of industrialists– Depicted Dems as vulgar, self-serving, + ignorant

– Not a national party as Whigs had been • Program appealed only to northerners• Didn’t even field candidates in most slave states• Plans/hopes for national victory based on sweep of free states – enough to win

House + presidency• Government by a party openly representing only 1 section of nation a clear threat

to national unity

The Crisis of the Union• Southern Congressmen voting for KS Territory assumed

it would gradually be populated by pro-slavery Missourians + would then apply for admission as a slave state– They also assumed northern Dems who voted for KS-NE Act

would vote for KS statehood

• They (+ Douglas) not prepared for explosion of anti-KS-NE feeling in North– 44 northern Dems had voted in favor of bill– 37 of them defeated in 1856 election – by a Republican party

organized only months before– Republicans actually won control of House + all but 2

northern state legislatures, giving them 15 senate seats– If they got control of both houses, KS-NE Act would be

repealed

The Crisis of the Union• Southerners also alarmed by speed with which

abolitionists mobilized to influence slavery decision under popular sovereignty– New England Emigrant Aid Society sent 100’s of Free

Soilers to KS, often paying for move + start-up money• About 2,000 in 2 yrs.

• No southern state as densely populated as New England – less economic incentive to emigrate; those interested looked to cotton lands of AK + TX, not plains– Not even Missourians interested – MO still sparsely

populated, no surplus to send


• Bleeding Kansas– While few Missourians moved to KS, many willing to

vote illegally in KS elections + terrorize free state advocates

– About 5,000 Missourians voted in election for territorial government in 1855• 1 group led by MO senator Robert Atchinson• Over 1,800 pro-slavery votes in district with 11 cabins• Free state supporters intimidated, beaten, prevented from

voting• Cabins + barns burned

– Free staters – “jayhawkers” – retaliated in kind, including raids into MO

– A mini-civil war quickly escalating

The Crisis of the Union• Bleeding Kansas, con’t.– Each faction feverishly trying to control territorial

government, from which KS’s ultimate destiny as slave or free would be established

– Pro-slavery faction met at Lecompton – Anti-slavery faction met at Topeka– Both produced constitutions

• Lecompton faction complete fraud, almost entirely MO residents

• Actual settlers of KS overwhelmingly opposed slavery• Pres. Pierce waded into fray in March, 1855, accepting

legitimacy of Lecompton Constitution + legislature it created• Anti-slavery faction refused to accept its legitimacy + created

its own government


• Bleeding Kansas–May 1856, pro-slavery gang of 700 attacked

Lawrence, KS, burning buildings, destroying 2 free soil newspaper offices, looting stores . . .

– About same time, violence erupted on floor of Senate• MA Sen. Charles Sumner, a pacifist, given to

intemperate remarks, lambasted events in KS, directing a personal insult to SC Sen. Andrew Butler sitting nearby• 2 days later Preston Brooks, Butler’s nephew,

accosted Sumner in Senate chamber + beat him nearly to death with a cane

The Crisis of the Union• John Brown

– Zealous abolitionist, long supporter of underground railroad

– Joined 5 sons, who had moved to KS to vote

– May 24, 1856, with 4 sons + 3 others, attacked homes of 5 pro-slavery Kansans on Pottawatomie Creek• Possibly retaliation for Lawrence, but

none of victims involved

– Southerners had joked about border ruffians + Brooks, but now indignant

– Northerners indignant over Brooks, but largely silent about Pottawatomie Massacre

– Middle ground no longer existed

The Crisis of the Union• Election of 1856

– 2yr. old Republican party believed anger over “Bleeding KS” would boost chances• Platform denounced KS-NE Act, alleged Slave Power conspiracy,

demanded federal prohibition of slavery in all territories, + called for federal subsidies of transcontinental railroad – a Whig proposal popular among Midwestern Dems

• Nominated Col. John C. Freemont– Military hero – old Whig strategy

– Dems had to nominate a “doughface” – a southerner couldn’t win• They would have chosen Douglas if KS hadn’t blown up in his face• They chose James Buchanan

– He had been minister to Britain 1853-56, conveniently removed when KS erupted, + hadn’t said much about it publically

– He was also among diplomats who signed Ostend Manifesto» A call to purchase Cuba, suggesting US should use force if refused

– Made him best possible candidate


• Fremont not on ballot in any southern state–Won 11 free states + 33% popular vote– Slight shift in IL + PA would have elected him

• Buchanan won every slave state + 5 free– 45% popular vote

• In inaugural address, Buchanan hinted issue of slavery in territories would soon be settled permanently– Dred Scott decision handed down 2 days later


• Dred Scott–MO slave, whose owner had taken him to IL +

WI territory, both free– After owner’s death, Scott sued for freedom,

arguing 4 yr. residence in free state + territory made him free• Many MO slaves had been freed under same

argument• But judges had changed + positions hardened• Lost case – whatever his legal status there, he

became a slave again legally when he returned to MO

– Case went to Supreme Court in 1856

The Crisis of the Union• Dred Scott v. Sandford

– Buchanan hoped strong pro-slavery decision would settle issue of slavery in territories – pressured northern justices to agree with southern

– 7 of 9 justices agreed Scott still a slave, but disagreed over legal issues; each wrote separate opinion

– Chief Justice Roger B. Taney believed he found ultimate constitutional solution to issue• Scott black, so not a citizen of MO (citizenship there restricted to whites) +

couldn’t sue in MO courts• Building on Calhoun’s arguments, Taney further declared that MO

Compromise (+ Northwest Ordinance) unconstitutional – A state legislature could outlaw slavery because states sovereign– But Constitution prohibited taking of property without due process; Congress

couldn’t deny southerners right to take legal property into territories– Territorial governments creations of Congress, + Congress couldn’t grant them

powers Congress itself didn’t have– Congress couldn’t prohibit slavery, so neither could territories– Territories could ban slavery as part of application for statehood, but that had to be

based on popular sovereignty – difficult to do if slavery already present


• Buchanan outraged Republicans further by recommending admission of KS under Lecompton constitution in 1858 – well-known now to be fraudulent– Douglas demanded popular referendum on Lecompton

constitution – denied– Douglas furious – most influential Dem senator broke

with president + convinced Congress to deny statehood• Without his objection, probably accepted

– KS finally admitted as free state in 1861, after war broke out

– Buchanan succeeded in widening split between Dems + rest of nation

The Crisis of the Union• Abraham Lincoln

– Born to poor farm family that moved from KY to IN to IL– Became small town store clerk in 1831, self-educated + socially

ambitious– Admitted to bar in 1837 + moved to Springfield, new state capital– Married socially prominent Mary Todd in 1842

• Her family slave-owners

– Served 4 terms in IL legislature– Elected to Congress 1846

• A moderate• He believed slavery unjust, but didn’t believe federal government had

authority to ban it where it existed; he was committed to keeping it from territories

• Opposed any expansion of slavery + urged gradual emancipation + colonization of freed slaves in Africa– Only practical way to address issues of slavery + racial diversity

• Too much for slavery’s supporters; too little for abolitionists – lost reelection


• Lincoln reentered politics after passage of KS-NE Act, challenging Douglas for IL senate seat as a Republican– Appalled by repeal of MO Compromise– Rejected Douglas’s popular sovereignty– Believed slavery should be allowed in states

where it existed, but federal authority should exclude it from territories

– Suggested a time soon coming when US would have to become all one or all the other

The Crisis of the Union• Lincoln-Douglas Debates

– Douglas agreed to 7 debates in towns throughout IL– Douglas repeatedly declared support for white supremacy + charged Lincoln

with promoting “negro equality”– Lincoln pressed Douglas on how he could accept Dred Scott decision

(protecting slave owners’ property in territories) + still continue to advocate popular sovereignty (asserting settlers’ power to exclude slavery)

– Douglas responded with Freeport Doctrine• A territorial legislature could exclude slavery just by not enacting a slave code – laws

in every southern state that protected property rights over slaves• No slave owner so foolish to take valuable slaves where no law protected his power

over them– Slave owners in CA had watched slaves walk away because no laws there protected slavery

• Supreme Court could overturn a territorial law, but it couldn’t force territorial legislature to enact a law it chose not to

– Lincoln wasn’t so sure; argued it was a small step after Dred Scott for Court to declare Constitution doesn’t permit a state’s exclusion of slavery

– Freeport Doctrine didn’t actually please anybody, but it won Douglas reelection

– But Lincoln bigger winner, emerging as a nationally known figure

The Crisis of the Union• John Brown Returns– Brown wanted for murder

in KS, but found he could move openly in New England

– He convinced 6 wealthy to finance his plans to launch slave rebellion

– Gave details to few – Frederick Douglas among them, who urged him to abandon plan

– Plan denounced as crazy after fact, but had strong points

The Crisis of the Union• Harper’s Ferry, 1859

– Plan was to raid arsenal, take weapons, + retreat into Appalachian hills, later distributing guns to area’s slaves

– Easily captured arsenal on Oct. 16 with his force of 19, including several blacks

– For unknown reasons, he holed up in roundhouse rather than retreating to hills

– US Marines under Robert E. Lee killed 10 followers + captured rest, including Brown, 2 days later

– Brown immediately tried for treason, hanged in Dec.– Most northerners approved of execution– Word of northern financial support + open praise of

Brown by a few most radical abolitionists enough to confirm Southerners worst fears


• Harper’s Ferry set tone for election of 1860• Dem party almost last national institution in US

– Protestant sects + fraternal organizations had split into northern + southern factions

– Meeting in Charleston, most delegates – northern + southern – supported Douglas• Only Dem open to southern interests who could also win north• Delegations of 8 southern states led by extremists claimed they

would only support Douglas if he repudiated Freeport Doctrine + supported their demand for a federal slave code

• Douglas supporters claimed doing so would drive northern Dems into Republican party– Dems needed to rally around 1 candidate who could keep White House

from Republicans– Extremists wouldn’t budge + walked out, eventually nominated their own

candidate (Breckinridge), splitting Dem vote + assuring Republican victory


• Republicans hopeful given Dem split– Knew they couldn’t run too extreme a candidate,

alienating moderates + driving them back to Douglas• Southern fire-eaters threatened secession if Republican won• None but most extreme northerners wanted that• Convention deliberately avoided radical rhetoric• Nominated Lincoln, far more moderate than more

established choices– Committed to keeping slavery out of territories– But not an abolitionist, arguing Constitution protected slavery in

states where it existed– Born in a slave state– Deliberately conciliatory, urging northerners to sympathize with

slave owners rather than vilify them

• Choice accommodated South as far as Republicans could without betraying basic principles


• Lincoln won 40% vote, but carried all northern states except NJ– Won clear majority of electoral votes– Breckinridge won 18%, overwhelming choice of

South– Douglas only candidate appealing to truly national

sentiment• Won only 12 electoral votes (MO + NJ), but 2nd to

Lincoln in North + to Breckinridge in South

• SC declared it’s secession from Union Dec. 20– 6 states of deep South followed in Jan.

Documents

Chapterr 13