Child PsychologyCh. 10 Intelligence and

Achievement

Rina Lestari S.

69080059

INTRODUCTION

People generally agreed that three behaviors

are central to intelligence: problem-solving ability verbal ability social competence

Question: How do these three behaviors fit in

with the scientific definition of intelligence?

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Three main issues : Intelligence is unitary or multifaceted It is determined by genetic or

environmental factors It predicts academic success & success

outside school ( related with IQ)

1st theory: The Factor Analytic Approach

Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure used to determine which of a number of factors, or scores, are both closely related to each other and relatively independent of other groups of factors, or scores.

Charles Spearman (1927) proposed that intelligence is composed of:- general factors (g): general mental ability involved in all cognitive tasks.- specific factors (s): factors unique to particular cognitive tasks.

2nd theory: The Information-Processing Approach: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Sternberg’s triarchic theory includes: Information-processing skill Experience with a task Ability to adapt to the demands of a context.

Recent theory of Sternberg successful

intelligence (ability of a person to meet her own

goals and those of her society), includes: Analytical Creative practical

2nd theory: The Information-Processing Approach: Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Successful intelligence: Analytical abilities: those taught & tested at

school Creative abilities: devise/work out new ways

of addressing issues & concerns Practical abilities: used in everyday activities,

such as work, family life, social & professional interactions. (tacit knowledge common sense shared by many people & guides the behavior)

3rd theory: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Howard Gardner (2004) theory of multipleintelligences: Linguistic Logical mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Intrapersonal interpersonal Naturalistic Spiritual

TESTING INTELLIGENCE

IQ (intelligence quotient): an index of the way a person performs on a standardized intelligence test relative to the way others her age perform.

Firstly, IQ innate & doesn’t change, but IQ can change over the life span, modified by experince.

Culture-fair test: a test that attempts to minimize cultural biases content in IQ tests that could discriminate test takers’ responses.

Measuring Infant Intelligence

The Bayley Scales of Infant Development/BSID: a set of nonverbal tests that measure specific developmental milestones and are generally used with abnormal developmental children.

Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence: a test of how infants process information, such as encoding attributes of objects and seeing similarities and differences across objects.

The Stanford-Binet Test

The Stanford-Binet Test is the modern version of the first major intelligence test; emphasizes verbal and mathematical skills. (it is used to identify who were unable to learn in traditional classroom special education).

Binet introduced mental age: an index of a child’s actual performance on an intelligence test compared with his true age.

The Wechsler Scales

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales (by David Wechsler): three intelligence tests for preschool, school-age children and adults that yield separate scores for verbal and performance IQ as well as a combined IQ score.

Deviation IQ: an IQ score which depends on a person’s performance on each age group.

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC): an intelligence test designed to measure several types of information-processing skills as well as achievement in some academic subjects.

The information-processing skills grouped in two categories:- sequential processing: step by step- simultaneous processing: examining and integrating.

Constructing Measures of Intelligence

Psychometrician/test constructor design anintelligence test guided by a particular theoryof intelligence GOALS & PRINCIPLES. Test norms: values that describe the typical

test performance of a specific group of people age is a critical factor.

Standardization: the procedures that examiners follow, the instructions they give to examinees, and test scoring given.

Constructing Measures of Intelligence

Validity: the extent to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure criterion to reflect the capacity being tested.

Reliability: the degree to which a test yield consistent result over time or successive administrations critical for evaluating the utility of an intelligence test.

WHY DO PEOPLE DIFFER IN MEASURED INTELLIGENCE?

The most controversy issues in the study of

human intellectual functioning: How individual

differences in intelligence develop?

Arthur Jensen (1969) claimed that 80% of

differences in IQ among people depend on

genetic/inherited factors, and a little influence

from social-environmental factors.

How Much of Intelligence Is Inherited?

Emphasize Heritability of IQ traditional views of intellectual functioning.

- associative learning (level 1): short-term memory, rote learning, attention, and simple associative skills.

- cognitive learning (level 2): abstract thinking, symbolic processes, conceptual learning, and the use of language in problem solving.

How Much of Intelligence Is Inherited?

Culture and Inheritance.

Comparing intelligence scores across groups is a complex process. This is because environmental conditions will influence the extent to which an inherited ability can be expressed.

Environmental Factors Pregnancy and Birth

Congenital development of uterus The Family

Has important influences on a child intellectual functioning

Schools and Peer groups The Community

stimulate and help children to develop intellectual abilities that are sophisticated, highly adaptive, and meaningful

ETHNICITY, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Researchers have found the relationship

between ethnicity and social class and

intellectual performance.

Social class includes these variables as

education, occupation, income.

SES (socioeconomic status) refer to a

combined assessment of those 3 variables.

ETHNICITY, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Stereotype threat (by Claude Steele (1997)): being at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about the group to which one belongs.

Researchers, e.g. Neisser & William that understanding the relation between ethnicity and performance on intelligence tests requires examining achievement levels on different kinds of cognitive skills than at overall IQ levels.

Social-Class Influences on Intellectual Performance

Investigators in the US and other nations

have described differences in performance on

standardized intelligence tests among children

from various social-class groups

(Huang & Hauser, 1998; Neisser et al., 1996).

e.g. In the US, children in the lower

socioeconomics classes score 10 to 15 IQ

points below middle-class children.

Social-Class Influences on Intellectual Performance

However, when factors such as family

conditions and home environment are taken

into account, the differences in scores are

reduced somewhat (Brooks-Gunn et al.,2003).

Several investigators have suggested that

maternal behavior differs across social classes

and may differentially affect children’s

intellectual performance in the school setting.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Children’s academic performance is affected

by: Experiences in the family School Peer group Community Achievement motivation

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Achievement motivation: a person’s tendency - to strive for successful performance, - to evaluate his performance against a specific standards of excellence, and- to experience pleasure as a result of having performed successfully.

Achievement motivation related to a child’s emotions and opinion of a himself as a person and as a learner.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Two different response patterns among

children on a challenging task: Mastery-oriented: focused on gaining skill or

mastery at the problems learning goal Helpless: tended to give up easily

frustration, blamed their own lack of ability, low expectation

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Factors that influence: Experience in the family: in the preschool

years may effect the development of these performances.

Culture

e.g. European American “having a good teacher”; Asian studying hard

Timing of certain school-related experience

COGNITIVE INTERVENTION STUDIES

Cognitive intervention studies is used to alter

the negative factors and impede children’s

intellectual development, as well as their ability

and motivation. Head start: a federally funded program that

provides disadvantage young children with preschool experience, social services, and medical and nutritional assistance.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION AND INTELLECTUAL PERFORMANCE

Characteristics of Successful Intervention Programs two-generation program:

- improving both the parent-child relationship

- family’s natural support system

- place the child in an educationally stimulating program.

BEYOND THE NORMS: GIFTEDNESS AND MENTAL RETARDATION

Traditionally, specialists in intelligence testing

have held that:

1. Intellectual giftedness: a characteristic defined by an IQ score of 130 or over; learn faster than others; show early exceptional talents in certain areas.

According to Veronica Dark and Camilla Benbow,

these children use their cognitive skills more efficiently than the rest of us.

To facilitate these children enrichment program

BEYOND THE NORMS: GIFTEDNESS AND MENTAL RETARDATION

2. Mental retardation: a characteristic defined by an IQ score below 70; difficulty in coping with age-appropriate activities in everyday life.

Mental retardation is diagnosed by 2 basic measures:

- assessment of the child’s mental functioning

- a child’s adaptive behavior (American Association of Mental Retardation, 2002).

BEYOND THE NORMS: GIFTEDNESS AND MENTAL RETARDATION

3. Learning disabilities: deficits in one or more cognitive processes important for learning.

Children with learning disabilities may learn more slowly.

To facilitate: inclusion children of all ability levels are included in the same classroom.

CREATIVITY

Robert Sternberg see intelligence and creativity as intertwined/knotted.

Howard Gardner see clearly differences between the two.

CREATIVITY Definitions and Theories

Both creativity and intelligence are multifaceted that vary as a function of personal characteristics (inherited and learned), the context, the risk factors, environmental support.Creativity uniqueness original, new, fresh usefulness (Gardner)

Creativity: the ability to solve problems, create a products, or pose questions in a way that is novel or unique.

CREATIVITY

Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence

Are IQ and creativity related to each other?

Wallach and Kogan (1985) administered WISC subtest to tap creative modes of thinking to a group of fifth graders.

Although highly creative people tend to be above average in intelligence, a higher IQ does not predict creativity (Gardner, 2006)

CREATIVITY Are Children Creative?

- According to Mark Runco (1996): young children often can’t distinguish between reality and fantasy, children can’t be truly creative until they reach preadolescence and can make this distinction.

- Others: children’s play, fantasy – gives children to practice the kind of divergent thinking invent something new (Moore & Russ, 2006; Russ, 2003). Divergent thinking outside school nourished by parents.

CREATIVITY- Vygotsky: The child’s play activity is not simply a recollection of past experience but a creative reworking that combines impressions and construct-forming new realities addressing the needs of the child.- Robert Albert: a number of researchers have identified a period in middle childhood through preadolescence when early signs of creativity seem to disappear as children concentrate on well-organized learning skills.