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1674–78 Nicolas de MALEBRANCHE: De la recherche de la vérité
1677 Benedict de SPINOZA: Ethics (posthumous publication)
1678 Richard SIMON: Histoire critique du VieuxTestament
1685 LOUIS XIV revokes Edict of NantesEdict of Potsdam welcomes French
HUGUENOTS to Brandenburg-Prussia1685–94 QUARREL BETWEEN THE ANCIENTS AND
MODERNS
1686 Bernard le Bovier de FONTENELLE:Entretiens sur la pluralité des mondes
1687 Isaac NEWTON: Principia mathematica1688–89 GLORIOUS REVOLUTION in England
Catholic king James II forced to abandon throne of England
Protestants WILLIAM III AND MARY II seize power
1689 John LOCKE: first of the Letters on Tolerationpublished
1690 Locke: Essay On Human UnderstandingLocke: Two Treatises on Government
1693 Locke: Some Thoughts Concerning Education
1695 Locke: The Reasonableness of Christianity1697 Pierre BAYLE: Dictionnaire historique et
critiquePETER I (THE GREAT) of Russia tours Europe
1700 Gottfried Wilhelm LEIBNIZ outlines plans for the Berlin Academy
William CONGREVE: The Way of the World1702–04 Revolt of the CAMISARDS
1703 Founding of the city of SAINT PETERSBURG
in Russia1704 NEWTON: Opticks1705 Edmond HALLEY predicts 1785 return of
comet
1707 ENGLAND and SCOTLAND join to form Great Britain
1707 Johann Friedrich BÖTTGER introduces kaolin, the secret ingredient of Chinese porcelain, and invents European hard-paste porcelain
1709 Bartolommeo Cristofori (1655–1731) builds the oldest piano (called the fortepiano) still extant in Florence
1710 George BERKELEY: Treatise Concerning the Principle of Human Knowledge
LEIBNIZ: Theodicée1711–14 Joseph ADDISON and Richard STEELE publish
The SPECTATOR
1711 Third earl of SHAFTESBURY: Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions
1714 Leibniz: MonadologieBernard MANDEVILLE: Fable of the BeesDaniel Gabriel FAHRENHEIT invents the
mercury thermometerJohann Lukas von HILDEBRANDT begins
construction of the Belvedere Palace for Prince Eugène of Savoy
1715–23 Regency in France during the minority years of LOUIS XV
1716 Johann Bernard FISCHER VON ERLACH
begins construction of the Church of Saint Charles Borromeo in Vienna
1717 George Frederick HANDEL’s Water Musicperformed
1719 Daniel DEFOE: Robinson CrusoeBalthasar NEUMANN begins work on the
Episcopal Residence in Würzburg1720 Eliza HAYWOOD: Love in Excess1721 Baron de MONTESQUIEU: Lettres persanes
(Persian Letters)Performance of the Brandenburg Concertos
by Johann Sebastian BACH
xiv
CHRONOLOGY
1721–23 Johann Jakob BODMER and Johann Jakob BREITINGER edit the journal Die Diskurse der Mahlern
1722 Jean-Philippe RAMEAU: Traité de l’HarmonieMORAVIAN BRETHREN fleeing persecution
take refuge in Saxony at the estate of German religious reformer Count von ZINZENDORF
1724–49 J. S. Bach: Mass in B Minor1724 Peter the Great founds the SAINT PETERSBURG
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1725 Giambattista VICO: Principi di una Scienza Nuova
1726 Jonathan SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels1729 Albrecht von HALLER publishes the poem
Les Alpes1730 Marquise du DEFFAND’s salon assumes
prominence in ParisPierre MARIVAUX: Le Jeu de l’Amour et du
Hasard1732 William HOGARTH: The Harlot’s Progress1733 Giovanni Battista PERGOLESI: La Serva
PadronaAlexander POPE: Essay on Man
1734 VOLTAIRE: Lettres anglaises ou philosophiques
Foundation of the University of Göttingen1734–35 Hogarth: A Rake’s Progress1738 Voltaire: Éléments de la philosophie de
Newton1738–40 David HUME: A Treatise of Human Nature1739–40 Charles de BROSSES: Lettres familières écrites
d’Italie1740s The ENGLISH GARDEN style becomes popular
throughout Europe1740 Samuel RICHARDSON: Pamela1740 Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia: Anti-
Machiavel1740–86 Reign of Frederick the Great of Prussia1740–80 Reign of MARIA THERESA in the HAPSBURG
EMPIRE
1740–48 WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
1741 Handel: Messiah1743 Jean Le Rond d’ALEMBERT: Traité de
dynamique1745 Emanuel SWEDENBORG: De Cultu et Amore dei
John Turberville NEEDHAM: Discoveries with the microscope
1745–64 Ascendancy of marquise de POMPADOUR
1746 Etienne-Bonnot de CONDILLAC: Essai sur l’origines des conaissances humaines
1748 Leonhard EULER: Introductio in analysin infinitorum
Montesquieu: Esprit des lois
1749 Denis DIDEROT: Lettre sur les aveugles1749 Comte de BUFFON: Beginning of publication
of Histoire naturelle1750 Jean Jacques ROUSSEAU: Discours sur les
lettres et les arts1750–77 Marquês de POMBAL is minister in
Portugal1751 Giovanni Battista TIEPOLO: Ceiling fresco
for the Kaiserssaal in the Episcopal Residence at Würzburg
d’Alembert: Discours préliminaire for volume I of the Encyclopédie
1751–54 Benjamin FRANKLIN: Experiments and Observations on Electricity
1751–72 Publication of the Encyclopédie, edited by Diderot and d’Alembert
1752 Voltaire: Le siècle de Louis XIVCharlotte LENNOX: The Female Quixote
1753 Prince KAUNITZ becomes chancellor of Austria
1755 Euler: Institutiones calculi differentialisLISBON EARTHQUAKE (November 1)Jean-Baptiste GREUZE: Le père de familleRousseau: Discours sur les origines et les
fondements de l’inégalitéJohann Joachim WINCKELMANN: Gedanken
über die Nachahmung der griechischen Werke
Moses MENDELSSOHN: Philosophischen Gespräche
Samuel JOHNSON’s letter to Lord Chesterfield refusing the latter’s offer of patronage for Johnson’s Dictionary
1755–92 Jacques-Germain SOUFFLOT: Construction of the Panthéon in Paris
1756 DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION
Posthumous publication of marquise duCHÂTELET’s French translation of Newton’s Principia mathematica
1756–63 SEVEN YEARS’ WAR
1757 Robert-François DAMIENS attempts to assassinate Louis XV
Edmund BURKE: On the Sublime and Beautiful
1757–66 Albrecht von HALLER: Elementa physiologiaecorporis humani
1758 Carolus LINNAEUS: Publication of the 10th edition of the Systema naturae
Claude-Adrien HELVÉTIUS: De l’espritFrançois QUESNAY: Tableau économiqueHume: Enquiry Concerning Human
UnderstandingThomas GAINSBOROUGH: The Painter’s
Daughters Chasing a Butterfly
Chronology xv
1759 Voltaire: Candide publishedExpulsion of the JESUITS from PortugalAdam SMITH: Theory of Moral Sentiments
1759–67 Laurence STERNE: Tristram Shandy1759–88 Reign of CHARLES III OF SPAIN
1760 James MACPHERSON: Ossian poems1760–1820 Reign of George III (1738–1820) in
England1761 Rousseau: LA NOUVELLE HÉLOISE
1761, 1769 Observation of the transits of Venus1762 Rousseau: ÉMILE and Le Contrat social
(Social contract)Execution of Jean CALAS in ToulouseChristoph Willibald GLUCK: ORPHEO ED
EURIDICE
1762–96 Reign of CATHERINE II (THE GREAT) in Russia
1763 Kant: Beobachtunger über das Gefül des Schönen und Erhaben
Voltaire: Traité sur la toléranceBritain gains control of French Canada
1764 Voltaire: Dictionnaire philosophiqueWinckelmann: Geschichte der Kunst des
AltertumsMarchese di BECCARIA: Tratto dei delitti e
delle peneJames HARGREAVES invents the spinning
jenny, patented 17701765 Jean Honoré FRAGONARD: The Bathers
Leibniz: Posthumous publication of Nouveaux essais sur l’entendement humain
1765–69 Sir William BLACKSTONE: Commentaries on the Laws of England
1765–90 Joseph II of Austria rules the HapsburgEmpire
1766 Baron de l’Aulne (TURGOT): Réflexions sur la formation et la distribution des richesses
Gotthold Ephraim LESSING: LaokoonOliver GOLDSMITH: The Vicar of Wakefield
1767 Expulsion of the Jesuits from SpainPaul-Henri-Thiry d’HOLBACH publishes Le
Christianisme dévoilée under the name Nicolas Boulanger
Gluck: Alceste1768 Rousseau: Dictionnaire de la musique
Quesnay: PhysiocratieCaptain James COOK begins his voyage to
the South Pacific1769 Diderot writes Le Rève d’Alembert1769–90 Joshua REYNOLDS: Discourses on Art1770 Holbach: Système de la nature
Ferdinando GALIANI: Dialogues sur le commerce des blés
Guillaume-Thomas François de RAYNAL:Histoire des deux Indes
Gainsborough: The Blue BoyJames WATT patents the steam engine
1770–84 Construction of Monticello, home of Thomas JEFFERSON
1772 Johann Wolfgang von GOETHE: Goetz von Berlichingen
1772–75 Second world expedition of Captain Cook1773 Jacques-Henri BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE:
Voyage à l’Île de FranceDiderot: Supplément au voyage de
Bougainville1774 Goethe: Die Leiden des jungen Werthers
Joseph PRIESTLEY isolates oxygen1774–76 Turgot serves as controlleur général in
France1774–79 Friedrich Heinrich JACOBI: Eduard Allwills
Papiere1775 AMERICAN REVOLUTION begins1775–76 Johann Friedrich BLUMENBACH: De generis
humani varietate natura1776–79 Last voyage of Captain Cook1776 Jeremy BENTHAM: A Fragment on
GovernmentSmith: An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the WEALTH OF NATIONS
United States’s DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE
Thomas Paine: COMMON SENSE
1776–88 Edward GIBBON: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
1779 Lessing: Nathan der WeiseHume: Dialogues Concerning Natural
ReligionPennsylvania passes the first U.S. abolition
law1780 Jean-Antoine HOUDON: Voltaire1781 Kant: Kritik der reinen Vernunft
Abolition of SERFDOM in AustriaEdicts of toleration in Austria and SwedenJohann Christoph Friedrich SCHILLER: Die
Räuber1782 Choderlos de LACLOS: Les Liaisons
dangereuses1783 MONTGOLFIER brothers Jacques-Etienne
and Michel-Joseph make first balloon ascent
Pierre-Augustin Caron de BEAUMARCHAIS:First performance of Le Mariage de Figaro
Mendelssohn: Jerusalem oder über die religiöse Macht und Judentum
Reynolds: Portrait of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse
1784 East India Act1784–91 Johann Gottfried HERDER: Ideen zur
Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit
xvi Chronology
1785 Mendelssohn: Morgenstunden oder über das Dasein Gottes
Jacobi: Über die Lehre des SpinozaJacques-Louis DAVID paints Le Serment des
HoracesKant: “WAS IST AUFKLÄRUNG”
1786 Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART: Marriage of Figaro premiere
François-André-Adrien PLUQUET: Le Luxe1787 Mozart: DON GIOVANNI
1787–88 James MADISON: The Federalist Papers1788 Kant: Kritik der praktischen Vernunft
Joseph-Louis LAGRANGE: Mécanique analytique
1788–1820 Chinese plants introduced in England, including chrysanthemums, hydrangeas, peonies, magnolias, and tiger lilies
1789 Antoine LAVOISIER: Traité élémentaire de chimie
FRENCH REVOLUTION beginsBentham: An Introduction to the Principles
of Morals and LegislationDECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND
CITIZEN
1790 Kant: Kritik der UrteilskraftEdmund Burke: Reflections on the
Revolution in France1791 UNITED STATES BILL OF RIGHTS
Premiere of Mozart’s THE MAGIC FLUTE
1791–92 Paine: THE RIGHTS OF MAN
1791–1804 François-Dominique-TOUISSANT LOUVERTURE
leads the HAITIAN REVOLUTION
1792 Mary WOLLSTONECRAFT: VINDICATION OF
THE RIGHTS OF WOMAN
1793 LOUIS XVI executed in FranceWilliam GODWIN: Enquiry Concerning
Political Justice1794 William BLAKE: Songs of Experience1795 Marquis de CONDORCET: Tableau historique
des progrès de l’esprit humainSchiller begins publishing the journal Die
Horen1796 Edward JENNER uses cowpox as a
vaccination against smallpoxMarquis de LAPLACE: Exposition du système
du monde1798 Joseph HAYDN: The Creation
Thomas Robert MALTHUS: An Essay on the Principle of Population
1799 Napoleon (1769–1821) overthrows the French Directory
1799–1825 Laplace: Traité de mécanique céleste1800 Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-Antoine de Monet de
LAMARCK: Système des animaux sans vertèbres
1801 Act of Union joins Ireland to Great Britain1803 Louisiana Purchase1804 Napoleon crowns himself emperor of
the FrenchCreation of the Republic of HaitiSchiller: Wilhelm Tell
1807 Abolition of the slave trade in Britain1808 Ludwig van Beethoven: Fifth Symphony1808–32 Goethe: Faust1809 Lamarck: Philosophie zoologique1810–14 Francisco José de GOYA y Lucientes: Los
desastres de la guerra
Chronology xvii
4. Ontological emanation, the ‘Great Chain of Being’:
God = perfectly complete and completely perfect being as such, every-where and always, from which alone any and all other beingsemanate, and through which alone any and all other beings are, asand for so long as the Divinity provides.
God
Angels
HUMANS
Animals
Plants
minerals
Satan, Hell + damnation
non-being = nothing
3
IMMANUEL KANT
22 April 1724 – 12 Feb. 1804, Königsberg, Prussia
(now Kaliningrad, Russia)
I. KANT’S MAIN ‘CRITICAL’ WRITINGS:
CPR Critique of Pure Reason, 1st edition 1781 ‘A’
2nd rev. edition 1787 ‘B’
CprR Critique of Practical Reason. 1788 §
CJ Critique of the Power of Judgment. 1790 §
MAdN Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science. 1786. §
Gr Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. 1785 p.
MM Metaphysics of Morals (2 parts): §
Pt. I RL Metaphyiscal First Principles of Justice 1797, 1798 §
Pt. II TL Metaphyiscal First Principles of Virtue 1798 §
Rel. Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone. 1793, 1794 p.
Anth. Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. 1798, 1800 §
II. KANT’S CRITICAL PHILOSOPHY = CRITIQUE OF RATIONAL JUDGMENT:
1. Reasoning using rules or principles always requires judgment to guide the proper use andapplication of the rule or principle to the case(s) at hand (CPR B169–75). Specifying rules ofapplication cannot avoid this, because using such rules of application also requires judgment.
2. Rational judgment is inherently normative, insofar as it contrasts to mere response tocircumstances by forming or revising beliefs, because judgment involves considering whether,how or to what extent the considerations one now draws together in forming and consideringa specific judgment (conclusion) are integrated as they ought to be integrated to form a cogent,justifiable judgment (CPR A261–3/B317–9, B219).
3. Rational judgment is in these same regards inherently self-critical: Judging some circumstance(s)or consideration(s) involves and requires assessing whether or the extent to which one assessesthose circumstances or considerations as they ought best be assessed (CPR A261–3/B317–9,B219).
4. Rational judgment is inherently social and communicable (CJ §40), insofar as judging somecircumstances or considerations rationally involves acknowledging the distinction in principlebetween merely convincing oneself that one has judged properly, and actually judging properlyby properly assessing the matter(s) and relevant considerations at hand.
5. Recognising one’s own fallibility, one’s own potentially incomplete information or analysis andone’s own theoretical or practical predilections requires that we each check our own judgments,
first, by determining as well as we can whether the grounds and considerations integratedin any judgment we pass are such that they can be communicated to all others, who canassess our grounds and judgment, so as also to find them adequate (CPR A829/B857);
second, by actually communicating our judgments and considerations to others and seeking andconsidering their assessment of our judgments and considerations (GS 8:145–7).*
*‘What is it to Orient Oneself in Thinking?’ (1786)
III JUDGMENT & COGNITIVE REFERENCE.
1. Thinking some specific thought, or entertaining some specific prospective judgment,proposition or belief.
2. Ascribing what one thinks, believes or judges to some particular(s).
3. Ascribing accurately or truly what one thinks, believes or judges to some particular(s).
4. Justifiedly ascribing accurately or truly what one thinks, believes or judges to some particular(s)(where the relevant justification is cognitive).
5. Ascribing accurately or truly what one thinks, believes or judges to some particular(s) withsufficient cognitive justification to constitute knowledge.
IV MATURE JUDGMENT:
TO discern and define the basic parameters of a problem,
TO distinguish relevant from irrelevant and more relevant from less relevant considerationsbearing on a problem,
TO recognize and to formulate important questions and sub-questions which must be answeredin order to resolve a problem,
TO determine proper lines of inquiry to answer those questions,
TO identify historical or social factors which lead people – including especially ourselves!! – toformulate questions or answers in particular ways,
TO think critically about the formulation or reformulation of the issues,
TO consider carefully the evidence or arguments for and against proposed solutions,
TO accommodate as well as possible the competing considerations bearing on the issue,
through these reflections and inquiries TO resolve a problem, and ultimately:
TO organize and TO present these considerations clearly and comprehensively to all interested– that is, to all affected – parties.
V KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE:
‘So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other,always at the same time as an end, never simply as a means’. (Groundwork 4:429)
>> Only to act in ways which are justified by sufficient reasons, grounds or analysis, such thatone’s justifying reasons CAN be communicated to ALL others, such that they too CANunderstand, consider and likewise judge that one’s reasons do sufficiently justify so acting,so that they too CAN think or act in the same way on the same occasion – also on thatoccasion on which you yourself act.
= PUBLIC use of reason
Rules out any and all acts which either overpower or evade anyone else’s CAPACITY tothink, judge and act on the basis of sufficient justifying reasons.
(Not a question whether others will agree or cooperate; but whether they should. Also aquestion of whether one’s own judgment and justifying reasons stand up to public scrutiny.)
‘Criticism’ = critical assessment – of one’s own best judgments and of others’.
Sapere aude!! Dare to know!
VI Kant’s ‘Logical Egoist’:
‘The logical egoist considers it unnecessary also to test his judgment by the understanding of others;as if he had no need at all for this touchstone. But it is so certain that we cannot dispense with thismeans of assuring ourselves of the truth of our judgment that this may be the most importantreason why learned people cry out so urgently for freedom of the press. For if this freedom is denied,we are deprived at the same time of a great means of testing the correctness of our own judgments,and we are exposed to error’. (Anthropology 7:128–9)
Herrad von LANDSBERG, ‘Septem artes liberales’, Hortus deliciarum (1180).
http://www.plosin.com/work/Hortus.html
{Wikipedia / Creative Commons}
Philosophy, the Queen, sits in the center of the circle. The three heads extending from her
crown represent Ethics, Logic and Physics, the three parts of the teaching of philosophy. The
streamer held by Philosophy reads: All wisdom comes from God; only the wise can achieve
what they desire.
4
Below Philosophy, seated at desks, are Socrates and Plato. The texts which surround them
state that they taught first ethics, then physics, then rhetoric; that they were wise teachers; and
that they inquired into nature of all things.
From Philosophy emerge seven streams, three on the right and four on the left. According to
the text these are the seven liberal arts, inspired by the Holy Spirit: grammar, rhetoric, dialectic,
music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. The ring containing the inner circle reads: I, God-
like Philosophy, control all things with wisdom; I lay out seven arts which are subordinate to
me.
Arrayed around the circle are the liberal arts. Three correspond to the rivers which emerge
from Philosophy on the right and are concerned with language and letters: grammar, rhetoric,
and dialectic. Together they comprise the trivium. The four others form the quadrivium, arts
which are concerned with the various kinds of harmony: music, arithmetic, geometry, and as-
tronomy. Each of the seven arts holds something symbolic, and each is accompanied by a text
displayed on the arch above it.
Grammar (12:00) holds a book and a whip. The text reads: Through me all can learn what are
the words, the syllables, and the letters.
Rhetoric (2:00) holds a tablet and stylus. The text reads: Thanks to me, proud speaker, your
speeches will be able to take strength.
Dialectic (4:00) points with a one hand and holds a barking dog’s head in the other. The text
reads: My arguments are followed with speed, just like the dog’s barking.
Music (5:00) holds a harp, and other instruments are nearby. The text reads: I teach my art us-
ing a variety of instruments.
Arithmetic (7:00) holds a cord with threaded beads, like a rudimentary abacus. The text reads: I
base myself on the numbers and show the proportions between them.
Geometry (9:00) holds a staff and compass. The text reads: It is with exactness that I survey
the ground.
Astronomy (11:00) points heavenward and holds in hand a magnifying lens or mirror. The text
reads: I hold the names of the celestial bodies and predict the future.
The large ring around the whole scene contains four aphorisms:
What it discovers is remembered;
Philosophy investigates the secrets of the elements and all things;
Philosophy teaches arts by seven branches;
It puts it in writing, in order to convey it to the students.
Below the circle are four men seated at desks, poets or magicians, outside the pale and beyond
the influence of Philosophy. According to the text they are guided and taught by impure spirits
and they produce is only tales or fables, frivolous poetry, or magic spells. Notice the black
birds speaking to them (the antithesis of the white dove, symbol of the Holy Spirit).
* * *
5
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