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UNITED NATIONS

PARTICIPANTS IN THE KOREAN WAR

NORTH KOREA

Republic of Korea

Australia

Belgium

Canada

Colombia

Ethiopia

France

Greece

Luxembourg

Netherlands

New Zealand

Philippines

South Africa

Thailand

Turkey

United Kingdom

United States

Japan

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

People’s Republic of China

Soviet Union

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THE DIVISION OF KOREAThe division of Korea had been considered at the Potsdam Conference, but issues regarding

boundaries and the desires of the Korean people were not brought to the attention of those in attendance. Talks continued at the

Yalta Conference, when Joseph Stalin stated that Russia should have the most say when it came to determining the fate of Korea. Stalin also agreed that Russia would enter the war on the allies’ side within three months after

the surrender in Germany. The Soviets finally entered the war on August 6, 1945 and began

attacking the Army of the Empire of Japan two days later. They began their attack of Japan on the northern Korean Peninsula

United Kingdom Prime Minister Clement Attlee (left), United States

President Harry Truman (center) and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin at the

Potsdam Conference

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THE DIVISION OF KOREADue to an agreement with the United States, the Army of the Soviet Union would halt its troops at the 38th parallel. With the surrender of the Japanese in the near future, the United States began wondering if the Soviets would agree to its proposal on how Korea would be

divided. United States military colonels Charles Bonesteel and Dean Rusk had

divided the country at the 38th parallel. The Soviet Union agreed on the 38th parallel

being the demarcation zone on the Korean Peninsula. The Soviets agreed to this

because they believed they would be in a better position in negotiating with the Allies

over the state of Eastern Europe. Dean Rusk (left) and Charles Bonesteel

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THE DIVISION OF KOREAIn addition, the Soviet Union soldiers would receive surrendering Japanese soldiers on the

Northern part of Korea while the United States soldiers would receive them in the southern

part of the country. Lieutenant General John R. Hodge had two main goals when he entered

Korea. The first involved restoring many of the Japanese to power within Korea, a move that proved to be unpopular among the citizens of

the country. Hodge also was not going to recognize many of the political organizations

that had been established by the people of Korea. Hodge was determined to maintain solid

control over the southern part of Korea.

Lt. General John R. Hodge

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THE DIVISION OF KOREAIn December 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed that Korea would be ruled by each of them under a body known as the U.S.-Soviet Joint Commission. One of the terms

of the agreement stated that Korea could independently rule after four years of being controlled by outside countries. But both the American and Russian halves of Korea would have Korean governments that were approved, respectively, by the United States and Soviet Union. These new governments would favor the political philosophies of whichever country

was ruling them. Many people within the Korean population did not like these policies. It resulted in protests in South Korea and violence in North Korea. In South Korea, a group

known as the Representative Democratic Council was formed, opposing all of the agreements the United States representatives came up with in the region. These Koreans, like the majority of them, did not like the fact that they were going to be under foreign control, as

they had been controlled by the Japanese for thirty-five years. These feelings caused the United States to withdraw its support from the Soviet-sponsored Moscow Accords. The

United States did not want to see a communist government come to South Korea, so they made an effort to lobby for elections in all of Korea. The Soviets were not enthralled by this plan, as they knew that South Korea had double the population of the North. This meant that

the leader of North Korea, Kim-Il-Sung, would not win the election.

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THE DIVISION OF KOREAThe government that was formed in South

Korea was one that followed anti-communist ideals. It was led by Syngman Rhee, a Korean who had been imprisoned

by the Japanese when he was younger before he escaped to the United States.

During the elections, the left-wing parties of South Korea did not vote, as they did not like Rhee. Those who had supported communism in South Korea were run out of the land and into the hills for hiding. In

North Korea, Kim-Il-Sung became the leader based on his strong political skills

and allegiance with the Soviet Union. Sung promised that he could crush those

who did not support him.

Syngman Rhee (left) and Kim-Il-Sung

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AMERICAN AND SOVIET WITHDRAWAL

In 1949, the United States and the Soviet Union had withdrawn the majority of their leaders from Korea. The only people still left there were advisers. When these two

countries were out of the region, Rhee and Sung worked hard on trying to reunite the Korean Peninsula using their own ways.

The Flag of North Korea

The Flag of South Korea

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THE LOOMING WARBoth Rhee and Kim were still trying their

own methods to bring the country together. Both North and South Korea

were attacking one another on the borders of the countries in 1949 and the early part

of 1950. Sung wanted to use as much force as possible to reunite Korea, but

Stalin was hesitant of this approach. He knew that any use of force would catch

the attention of the United States. However, the United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson stated that it was the responsibility of the United Nations, not the United States, to defend South Korea in the event of an attack. Sung continued to press the issue of reunification upon

Stalin, but it was rejected.

United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson

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THE LOOMING WARThe reason that Stalin continually rejected Sung’s

request for reunification was that he did not feel the Army of North Korea could hold its own in a fight if

the United States were to get involved. Over the course of the next year, the North Korean Army trained to become a strong unit, being somewhat

similar to the Army of the Soviet Union and being led by Koreans who were a part of the Chinese

People’s Liberation Army for several years. During the early 1950s, the decision about using force could no longer be ignored, as the police forces of South

Korea were able to quell all of the purported communist activity that was occurring there. By

now, it seemed that reunification would not occur.

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin

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THE LOOMING WARBy this time, Sung was left with the only choice of invading South Korea if he still wanted to pursue reunification under the communist banner. He wanted to do this before the government of South Korea became too strong. The Army of North

Korea now had Soviet military equipment, easily having the advantage over South Korea’s Army. In January 1950, Stalin

finally told Sung that he would help him unify Korea. However, Stalin demanded

monetary compensation for his assistance, with a yearly minimum of 25,000 tons of

monazite powder. After a few more meetings, Stalin approved the North

Korean attack on the South.

Monazite powder, one of the many things Sung used to pay Stalin with for assistance. On March 9, 1950,

Sung gave Stalin 15,000 tons of the powder alone.

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THE INVASION OF SOUTH KOREA

The Army of North Korea began its invasion of South Korea in the early

morning of June 25, 1950. It tried to claim that members of the South Korean Army

had crossed the border first, prompting the Northern Army to attack. The Army of North Korea was well armed for attack, having more than 150 Soviet tanks and

seventy attack bomber planes. In addition, its navy was strong, constantly attacking

South Korea’s fleet. One flaw that the North Koreans had was its method of moving

supplies as the army advanced. The symbol of the Army of the

Republic of Korea, who the North Korean Army said attacked first on

June 25, 1950

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SOUTH KOREAN WEAKNESSES

The South Korean Army was not as strong and well equipped as the Army of North Korea. While it was given supplies by the United States, it only had approximately 150,000 armed soldiers and lacked sufficient artillery and armor. In addition, it only had 40 tanks and 14 attack planes. This allowed an attack by 415,000 North Korean troops to be successful.

They were able to attack many places in South Korea, including Ongjin, Chuncheon, and Kaesong.

The South Korean forces could not put up with the attack of the North Koreans. They were outnumbered in every aspect of combat. They had no choice but to retreat. In many

instances, citizens of South Korea would switch allegiances and defect to North Korea. During this time, the North Korean Army continued its massive ground attack. The air

force of North Korea began Kimpo Airport, which was located near Seoul, the present-day capital of South Korea. By June 28, North Korea had occupied the city.

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U.N. INTERVENTIONThe United Nations was shocked by the

invasion of South Korea. This went against the statement that Secretary of

State Acheson had said a week before, in which he did not think war would be

possible. United States President Harry Truman decided that he would not press

toward war, as that would be too alarming to the American public. Instead, Truman

went to the United Nations for approval of the declaration of war. However, before any resolution for war was brought into play, Truman sent United States military

forces to Korea anyway.American soldiers in Korea

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UNSC RESOLUTION 82On the same day that the Korean War began, the United Nations drafted the UNSC

Resolution 82. This provision by the Security Council called for the end to all hostilities and for North Korea to leave the 38th parallel. In addition, it would also give way to the creation of the United Nations Commission on Korea. This group would be in charge of examining the withdrawal of North Korea and make reports to the United Nations Security Council. Furthermore, all members of the United Nations were to show support in achieving this

plan. They were advised to not help out the North Koreans in any way.

When the vote was held in the Security Council, it was passed unanimously. This was thanks to the Soviet absence from the United Nations Security Council. The Soviets felt that China’s seat of the Security Council should be transferred from the Republic of China to the Communist People’s Republic of China. When the United States blocked that resolution, the Soviets walked out of the U.N. Security Council in protest. With the Soviets boycotting, the United States took immediate action in the conflict in Korea, convincing the United Nations to sponsor the military defense of South Korea. However, it was America that provided the

most aid to South Korea; offering 86 percent of the naval power, 93 percent of the air power, and more than 50 percent of the ground forces.

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EARLY LOSSES FOR THE U.N.Even though the majority of the United

States and United Nations’ armies had been demobilized in the aftermath of World War II, there was still a strong force of soldiers

in Japan that could pose a threat to the North Korean Army. Under the direction of General Douglas MacArthur, one of the first maneuvers was the transfer of weaponry to

the forces of the Republic of Korea. In time, the first battle that the United States took part in involved the American Task Force

Smith on July 5, 1950. During this time, the Americans were defeated by the North

Korean forces. In addition, the U.S. Army’s 24th Infantry was defeated and captured by

members of the North Korean Army.

Flag of the United Nations

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THE WAR ESCALATESThe Allies during the war began to become

desperate in the wake of the harsh attacks by the North Koreans. The U.N. forces were able

to defeat the North Koreans at the Battle of Pusan Perimeter. In addition, the United

Nations utilized massive air power in order to launch attacks on the Army of North Korea. In

particular, seaports and oil refineries were targeted in order to cut off supplies of

ammunitions to the North Koreans. At the same time, Japanese forces were providing

Americans with weaponry on the Pusan. The Americans now had more than five hundred tanks arrive in Pusan. In addition, the Allies now outnumbered the Army of North Korea

by more than 80,000 soldiers.United States forces launch an attack on

rail lines in Wonsan, North Korea

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INVASION OF INCHONThe North Korean Army was now at the

disadvantage, in addition to not having sufficient air or naval support like the Americans did.

General MacArthur wanted to increase the amount of pressure on the North Koreans. He wanted to invade behind the enemy lines at Inchon, North Korea. He wanted to launch this attack from the water. Many worried about the large presence of North Koreans at Inchon, in addition to strong

tides in the water. Apparently, MacArthur had been planning this attack since the war began, although

he was always rejected when he asked for permission to do so. Nevertheless, MacArthur

finally got permission to carry it out.

General Douglas MacArthur

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INVASION OF INCHONWhen launching the attack, MacArthur

called upon General Edward Almond and the X Corps, which was approximately

70,000 troops from the United States First Marine Division, more than 8,000 South

Korean troops and members of the American 7th Infantry Division. These

soldiers landed at Inchon as part of Operation Chromite on September 15,

1950. Due to a miscommunication, there were not a lot of North Korean soldiers at

Inchon, so the Armies of the United Nations were not met with much

resistance. They were able to capture the city of Seoul, with members of the North Korean Army retreating at a heavy pace.

United States Marines fighting the North Koreans who were controlling Seoul

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U.N. ENTERS NORTH KOREAThe forces of the United Nations were able to push the North Korean Army back past the 38th parallel. While the South Korean government had been somewhat saved at

this point, the Americans were now focused on potentially reuniting the entire country

under the rule of Syngman Rhee. Therefore, the United Nations Armies moved farther

into North Korea to carry out this procedure, in addition to ending the

communist rule in the land and freeing the prisoners of war. The United Nations

entered North Korea in the early part of October 1950. In addition, members of the X Corps landed at Iwon and Wonsan, two places already held by the South Koreans.

The symbol of the X Corps

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U.N. ENTERS NORTH KOREAThe Allied forces were able to make their way up the

western side of Korea, with members of the Eighth Army of the United States and South Koreans leading the way. They

captured the city of Pyongyang on October 19, 1950, putting the North Korean capital under U.N. control. By the end of

the month, the North Korean Army was falling apart, as almost 135,000 of them had been taken prisoner. The

Chinese were wary that the U.N. forces would also cross the Yalu River and make their way into China. MacArthur thought this would be a necessity, since China had been

supplying North Koreans with weapons and many members of the North Korean Army had been trying to retreat there. However, President Truman disagreed with this philosophy.

He did not think China should be bombed. He warned MacArthur as he approached the Yalu River.

Aerial shot of the city of Pyongyang

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CHINA ENTERS THE WARAt this time, China began to warn the Americans that if it felt that its national security was being

threatened, it would become more involved in the conflict. After Americans had crossed the 38th parallel on October 7, 1950, Chairman of the

Communist Party in China, Mao Zedong, ordered the assembly of the Chinese People’s Volunteer

Army, with the majority of them being comprised of people from the People’s Liberation Army. He positioned the army along the Yalu River, with

orders that stated they needed to be ready to cross. He also wanted the aid of the Soviets. Mao told Joseph Stalin that if the United States wanted to

take all of Korea, it would also launch an invasion of China.Chairman of the Communist Party

in China Mao Zedong

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CHINA ENTERS THE WARWhile waiting on aid from the Soviets, the Chinese had to postpone the launch date

of their attack from October 13 to October 19 in 1950. During this time, Truman met with General MacArthur. Truman was told by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) that there was a limited chance that the

Chinese would attack the Americans and U.N. forces. Due to China not having the aid of a significant air force, MacArthur

felt that China would not attack for fear of suffering considerable casualties. In the

end, the Soviets provided assistance to the Chinese in terms of an air force, but it was no closer than sixty miles from the

battlefront. China was not happy with this.

The front of the miG-15, the plane primarily used by the Soviets when defending Chinese

airspace

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CHINA ENTERS THE WARThe Army of China attacked the Americans on November 1, 1950. It attacked from all parts of the north and west, hitting Allied

forces that were attempting to move farther into the country of North Korea. The

Chinese attack surprised the U.N. forces. The Chinese continued their attack for the majority of November. It particular, they decimated South Korean forces on the

Chongchon River. They also severely hurt the Eighth Army of the United States,

forcing the longest retreat in U.S. history.

United States Army soldiers prepare to launch an attack on the front lines of the

North Koreans.

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CHINA ENTERS THE WARHardships continued for the Allied forces

during the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. During this battle, 30,000 soldiers from the American 7th Infantry Division and

Marine Corps underestimated the Chinese and were eventually surrounded. They were able to escape from the battle by

killing many of the Chinese, but the Allies lost more than 15,000 men. American units that were in the northeast part of

Korea had to race south to defend the city of Hungnam, where an evacuation was

taking place. More than 200,000 men, half of them Allied soldiers, were shipped out to Pusan, with the Americans destroying Hungnam before they left so the Chinese

could not use the city.Map depicts the Battle of Chosin

Reservoir

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THE CHINESE WINTER OFFENSIVE

The Chinese and North Koreans continued to be on the attack at the start of 1951. They began to use the Chinese Winter (3rd Phase) Offensive. Attacks such as these were composed

of attacks during the night that would be followed by massive ground attacks. In addition, musical instruments would be utilized in distracting the Allied forces. Members of the United

Nations forces could not come up with an effective method to counteract the Chinese and North Koreans. They were forced to leave Seoul, which was again under communist control

on January 4, 1951.

The Eighth Army of the United States continued to undergo difficulties. Its leader General Walton Walker was killed in an accident. His leadership was assumed by Lieutenant-General

Matthew Ridgeway, who was determined to help restore the Eighth Army of the United States to its former prominence. Morale had been low within the regiment due to constant

retreats and heavy casualties. During this time, General MacArthur began to consider using nuclear weapons against China.

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OPERATION ROUNDTRIPThe United Nations forces continued their

retreat until they reached a position in which their front could be stabilized. This

was a smart move as the People’s Volunteer Army had reached the end of its supply line

and could not go beyond Seoul. At this time, Ridgeway set up a full-scale offensive

plan that was known as Operation Roundtrip. The plan would put a significant emphasis on the Allies’ strong firepower on the ground and from the air. The plan turned

out to be successful for the Allies; it concluded during the early part of February.

At the completion of the operation, the Allies got to the Han River and retook

Wonju.An A-26 Invader bombs parts of Wonsan,

North Korea, during an Allied attack

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FURTHER OPERATIONSThe Chinese retaliated from Operation

Roundtrip with the Fourth Phase Offensive, which went from Hoengsong to Chipyong-ni. This attack was broken up by the United States 2nd Infantry Division and the French Battalion. The Eighth Army of the United States fought back with Operation Killer,

which was aimed at destroying as much of the North Korean and Chinese Armies as possible. This allowed the Allies to regain land from their enemies. The Allies also launched Operation Ripper on March 7,

1951. During this operation, the Allies were able to remove North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, a process that left the

city in dismay. The symbol of the United States 2nd Division Infantry

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MACARTHUR’S REMOVALIn March 1951, MacArthur sent a letter to

House of Representatives Republican House Minority Leader Joe Martin. He did not like the fact that President Truman was limiting

the war to just Korea and not starting a bigger war with China. In addition,

MacArthur sent a letter to the Army of China, a move that ruined Truman’s

attempts for a cease-fire treaty with them. This violated the belief that military leaders

were to act as subordinates to civilian leaders. Truman declared that MacArthur was guilty of insubordination. As a result,

Truman relieved MacArthur of his command on April 11, 1951, a move that

angered much of the American public.General Douglas MacArthur prior to a

military battle

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ALLIES CONTINUE TO ATTACK

Ridgeway was announced as MacArthur’s replacement. During this time, the Chinese and North Koreans continued to be attacked by the Allied forces, in particular during Operations

Courageous and Tomahawk. During these attacks, forces between the cities of Kaesong and Seoul

were trapped thanks to Allied ground and air attacks. Nonetheless, the Chinese would not

surrender. They began the Fifth Phase (Chinese Spring) Offensive in April 1951. The Chinese

utilized approximately 700,000 men during this offensive and achieved initial success. But they were later stopped at a defensive line north of

Seoul, called the No-Name Line.Map depicts the plans for Operation

Courageous

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EVENTS PRIOR TO STALEMATE

The communist armies continued to mount offensives against the Allies, such as attacks against the armies of the Republic of Korea

and the X Corps. While the Chinese and North Koreans were able to make little

gains on May 15, the attacks stopped just five days later. By this time, the Eighth

Army of the United States had started an attack on the communist forces, driving them from the region, and reaching Line

Kansas, just north of the 38th parallel. The forces of the United Nations stopped at this point, and did not continue attacks against

North Korea.A dead Chinese soldier during the Korean War

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STALEMATEPeace negotiations started on July 10, 1951 in

Kaesong, North Korea. However, some forms of fighting did continue during the stalemate. The goal of the Allied forces was take back all of South Korea before peace talks concluded so the allies would not lose any more territory. The North Koreans and the

Chinese had similar desires. The battles that occurred during this time included Bloody Ridge, Heartbreak Ridge, Old Baldy, and Pork Chop Hill. The peace

talks would continue over the next two years, eventually moving from Kaesong to Panmunjom. One major issue involved the repatriation of the

prisoners of war, which the communists agreed to, but only if they went to China or North Korea. Many of the North Korean and Chinese prisoners did not

want to go back to their communist countries, preferring to stay in a democratic country. The

communists eventually dropped the issue.

Map depicts the plans for the Battle of the Old Baldy Area

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OPERATION HUDSON HARBORThe United States began a plan in October 1951 called Operation Hudson Harbor. The main part of the plan was to show that the United States could use nuclear weapons.

Simulated bomb runs were tested from Okinawa, Japan, to North Korea. Starting at the Yokota Air Base in Japan, the operation wanted to see how effective a nuclear attack would be

on the forces of North Korea. After the operation was complete, it was determined that

the bombs would be less effective because it would take a long time to locate a large group

of people to drop the bomb over.Matthew Ridgeway, General of the Allied Forces during

the Korean War

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1952 U.S. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION

The issue of Korea was one of the main topics that came up during the 1952 United

States Presidential Election. Republican candidate and former Supreme Allied

Commander in Europe Dwight D. Eisenhower represented the Republicans,

pledging to go to Korea to help end the war. His vice presidential candidate, Richard M.

Nixon, stated that the Democrats had given in to the demands of the communists in Korea. He even insulted the Democratic presidential

candidate Adlai Stevenson by calling him “Adlai the Appeaser.” Eisenhower and Nixon

easily took the White House in a landslide.

United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower (left) and Vice President

Richard M. Nixon

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ARMISTICE AGREEMENTUnited States President Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise by going to Korea to see what could be done to help end the war. During this time, India was coming up with a plan to deliver to the United Nations for an

armistice in Korea. On July 27, 1953, a cease-fire was enacted in the region. During this time, the front line had been hovering close to the 38th parallel, calling for the need of a demilitarized

zone to be established. Troops from each side of the conflict would be there to defend the zone in

the event that one side attacked the other. Eventually, the Armistice Agreement was signed

by North Korea and the United States, but not by South Korea’s Syngman Rhee.Image above displays how

territory changed hands during the Korean War

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AFTERMATH OF THE KOREAN WAR

The Korean War had a significant impact on the history of wars throughout the world.

The concept of limited war was conceived during this conflict, where two different

countries would fight one another on land that was not theirs. While both groups

suffered significant casualties, the land the battles were fought on suffered the most. In

addition, it broadened the horizon of the Cold War that was occurring primarily in Europe at the time. Even today, there is a

heavily guarded military presence along the demilitarized zone in Korea at the 38th

parallel.