CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia 1 Trends and Issues in Educational Technology HMEF 5083

Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia

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Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences

Trends and Issues in Educational TechnologyHMEF 5083

Chapter 7

Instructional Design for Effective Learning

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Course Map

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Chapter Overview

• Introduction• Overview on Instructional Design

- History of Instructional Design- Understanding Instructional Design

• Instructional Design Theories

- R. M. Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory- C. M. Reigeluth’s Instructional Design Theory- M. D. Merrill’s Instructional Design Theory- D. H. Jonassen’s Instructional Design Theory

• Instructional Design Models

- Selecting Models- Generic Instructional Design Model- Specific Instructional Design Model

• Summary

- Key Terms- Discussion Question- Readings

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“The best design doesn’t compensate for the lack of skills needed to develop quality instruction.” - Montague, Wulfrek, Ellis (1980)

Inadequate designers, despite the quality of the design models will produce inferior quality instruction.

Remember that starting with the end in mind limits any room for creativity and emergence

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Figure 7.1: Steps that could be undertaken to plan instruction systematically

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Figure 7.2: Effective learning objectives

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Activity 7.1

Select any two of the philosophers mentioned above and do a further analysis of their contributions.

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Table 7.1: Terminologies Used in Instructional Design

Terminology Description

Instruction A planned process that facilitates learning.

ISD/ID Instructional Systems Design (or alternatively called Instructional Systems Development) - a process provides a means for sound decision making to determine the who, what, when, where, why, and how of training. ISD is often called SAT (System Approach to Training) or ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate).

IST Instructional Systems Technology. A survey of websites shows that IST is normally related to a program, a department or a faculty which offers courses related to ISD. Check the following website: http://education. indiana.edu/~ist/

Instructional context

The physical and psychological environment in which instruction is delivered or in which transfer occurs. Related Term: Learning environment.

Individualised instruction

The use, by students, of systematically designed learning activities and materials specifically chosen to suit their individual interests, abilities, and experience. Such instruction is usually self-paced.

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Table 7.2: Definitions of Educational Design

Definition Source

The process of deciding which methods of instruction are best for bringing about desired changes in student knowledge and skills for a specific student population.

Reigeluth, C.M. (1983:7)

The science of creating detailed specifications for the development, evaluation and maintenance of situations which facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter.

Ritchey, R. (186, p. 9)

Instructional design simply defined means using a systematic process to understand a human performance problem, figuring out what to do about it and then doing something about it.

McArdle, G. (1991)

The systematic process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and activities.

Smith & Ragan (1993, p. 2) Newby, J.T., 1996, p. 17)

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Activity 7.2

Reflect on all the definitions above and construct one that is based on your teaching experiences.

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Activity 7.3

What do you think will be the skills and knowledge of future Instructional Designers?

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Figure 7.3: Three elements of Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory

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Figure 7.4: Three elements of Gagne’s Instructional Design Theory

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Table 7.3: Five kinds of capabilities in the human learner

No Capabilities Description

1. Intellectual skills Permits the learner to carry out symbol-based procedures.

2. Cognitive strategies Inventing or selecting a particular mental process to solve a problem or accomplish a task.

3. Verbal Information The facts and organised “knowledge of the world” stored in the learner’s memory.

4. Attitudes Internal states that influences the personal action choices a learner makes.

5. Motor Skills Performing a physical task to some specified standard.

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Figure 7.5: External and internal factors affecting the learning event

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Figure 7.6: Nine events of instruction

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Figure 7.7: Eight basic strategies of elaboration theorySource: http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/

strategies/cognitivism ElaborationTheory.htm.

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Content/performance matrix (Clark, 1999 in White, 2001)

Remember Use Find

Fact

Concept

Process

Procedure

Principle

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Table 7.4: D.H. Jonassen’s ID Theory

Theory Description and Implications for ID

Hermeneutics Emphasises the importance of socio-historical context in mediating the meanings of individuals creating and decoding texts. This means that ID must strive to introduce gaps of understanding which allow the learner to create his/her own meanings. Another implication is that learners need to become aware of their own and others' biases. Exercises must problematise the world of ideas and values, rather than simplifying and codifying it. As Jonassen et al. (1997) express it, "Good learners are naturally sceptical learners" (p.30). A third implication is that other factors outside of the immediate learning situation play a role in the learner's creation of meaning. Designers need to work in a manner that allows the flexibility and openness that will enable these "external" factors a place in the instruction. Finally, the learning programme should facilitate understanding of different time periods, and other cultures, so that learners' understanding is not mediated only by their own unconscious biases.

Fuzzy Logic Based on the idea that reality can rarely be represented accurately in a bivalent manner. Rather, it is multivalent, having many varieties and shades which do not have to belong to mutually exclusive sets. In terms of needs assessment and design, the implication of this is that behaviour can only be understood probabilistically, using continua, rather than binary measures. Also, it means that problem areas, such as student perceptions of the efficacy of the educational programme, can be incorporated into the design.

Chaos Useful for non-linear, dynamic situations. Chaos theory is also necessary where there is sensitive dependence on initial conditions (i.e. where a very small change in the initial situation leads to great changes later). Chaos theory finds order in the chaos of natural structures through looking for self-similarity and self-organisation, patterns that are repeated at different levels of complexity through a structure. Since the linear, deterministic approach is inapplicable to educational settings, Chaos theory can offer ID some useful alternatives. Firstly, designers need to include metacognitive skills in their designs, to enable learners to deal with the complexity flexibly, rather than hushing it up through simplification, and thereby crippling the learner who will all too soon be faced by aspects of reality that do not fit the simplified scheme. Secondly, ID needs to take account of learners' emotions, and promote self-awareness on this level, not just the cognitive.

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Activity 7.4

If you were to design an instructional product (print module, multimedia courseware, learning object, web-based course, audio-tape, etc), which instructional theory/theories will inform your decision?

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Table 7.5: List of Sample Tasks And Output According to the 5 Elements in ADDIE Source: San Jose State University, Instructional Technology Programme

Sample Tasks Sample Output

Analysisthe process of defining what is to be learned

Needs assessmentProblem identificationTask analysis

Learner profileDescription of constraintsNeeds, Problem StatementTask Analysis

Designthe process of specifying how it is to be learned

Write objectivesDevelop test itemsPlan instructionIdentify resources

Measurable objectivesInstructional strategyPrototype specifications

Developmentthe process of authoring and producing the materials

Work with producersDevelop workbook, flowchart, program

StoryboardScriptExercisesComputer assisted instruction

Implementationthe process of installing the project in the real world context

Teacher trainingTryout

Student comments, data

Evaluationthe process of determining the adequacy of the instruction

Record time dataInterpret test resultsSurvey graduatesRevise activities

RecommendationsProject reportRevised prototype

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Figure 7.8: Dick & Carey Model

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Figure 7.9: Kemp’s ModelSource: Reprinted from Designing effective instruction by Kemp,

J.E., Morrison, G.R., & Ross, S. (1994)

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Figure 7.10: Leshin, Pollock and Reigeluth Model(1992)

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Figure 7.11: Smith & Ragan ModelSource: Reprinted from Instructional design by Smith, P.L. & Ragan,

T.J. (1992)

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Summary

• Instructional products support the learning process.

• Design of instruction must be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs.

• The systems approach is used to ascertain the planning of instruction in a systematic manner with attention to the consistency and compatibility of technical knowledge.

• Robert Glaser and Robert Gagne are two pioneers of Instructional Design movement.

• Instructional design is an intellectual process requiring higher-level thinking skills.

• The role of instructional designers may evolve into what is known as knowledge architects.

• R. M. Gagne, C. M. Reigeluth, M. D. Merrill and D. H. Jonassen can be regarded as some of the greater contributors to instructional design theory.

• The generic instructional design model ADDIE can be used to guide an instructional designer to create any instructional material.

• The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is well-known and widely applied model in instructional design.

• Almost all models share 3 major activities: analysis, strategy development and evaluation.

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• Instructional Design• Conditions of Learning• Learning Strategies• Instructional Designer• Knowledge Architects• Taxanomy of Learning Outcomes• Elaboration Theory• Component Display Theory• Hermeneutics• Fuzzy Logic• Chaos Theory• ADDIE

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Based on the course materials provided to you for Trends and Issues in Educational Technology, do you think that the instructional design model used is based on any particular model and if yes, which model can you relate this module to? Give reasons when you discuss this online.

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CiDT Faculty of Education, Arts and Social Sciences Copyright © Feb 2006 Open University Malaysia 1 Trends and Issues in Educational Technology HMEF 5083