EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIPHMEF 5023

Dr. Allison Lee Gim WahOctober 2009 topic 4

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

What Is Motivation?• There are some 140 distinct definitions for the

concept of motivation (Golembiewski, 1993).• Etymologically, motivation is derived from the

Latin word motus, a form of the verb movere, which means “to move” (Steers & Porter, 1987).

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

Definitions of Motivation1. Motivation is the degree to which a person is

moved or aroused to expend effort to achieve some purpose. It refers to the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction.

2. Motivation concerns actions, and the internal and external forces which influence an individual’s choice of action or engagement in certain specified behaviors.

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

Definitions of Motivation3. Motivation is the willingness to exert high

levels of effort towards organizational goals conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need.

4. Motivation is getting people to do willingly and well those things which have to be done.

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

Why is motivation important?• Employees have different needs, aspirations, and

attitudes.• It explains: (a) What energizes human behavior? (b) What directs or channels behavior? (c) How is behavior maintained or sustained?• There is a critical need to identify the motivated,

the unmotivated, and the demotivated employee

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

Characteristics of a motivated employee• High and consistent performance• Energetic, enthusiastic, and determined to

succeed• Unstinting cooperation in overcoming

problems• Willingness to accommodate necessary

change

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

Inner state of disequillibrium:Needs, desire, expectancy

Behavior or Action

Incentive or goal

Modification of inner state

A General Model of the Basic Motivation Process

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationTypes of MotivationExtrinsic Motivation• Originated from the proponents of the behaviorist

theories.• Involves external incentives, e.g., rewards and

punishments.Intrinsic Motivation• Originated from the proponents of the cognitive

theories.• Emphasizes factors such as self-direction, curiosity,

challenge and effort.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationTheories of MotivationEarly Theories of Motivation:1.Hierarchy of Needs Theory2.Theory X and Y3.Motivator-Hygiene Theory / Herzberg’s Two

Factor Theory

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationTheories of MotivationContemporary Theories of Motivation:1. Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) Theory2. McClelland’s Theory of Needs3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory4. Task Characteristic Theories (a) Requisite Task Attributes Theory (b) The Job Characteristic Model (JCM)5. Goal-setting Theory6. Reinforcement Theory7. Equity Theory8. Expectancy Theory

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationMotivation Theories• Motivation theories fall into 2 main categories: (a) Content theories (b) Process theories• Content theories explain the dynamics of

employee needs, such as why people have different needs at different times.

• Process theories describe the processes through which needs are translated into behavior.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationHierarchy of Needs Theory• Proposed by Abraham Maslow.• People are motivated by the desire to satisfy

specific groups of needs. • Needs are divided into “lower-order needs”

and “higher-order needs.”• Lower-order needs are physiological and

safety needs.• Higher-order needs are social, esteem and

self-actualization needs.

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation Hierachy of Needs

1. Physiological needs = Need for food, sleep, etc.2. Safety needs = Need for a stable, secure environment3. Social needs = Need for affection, belongingness, acceptance4. Esteem needs = Need for self-respect, status, recognition, attention5. Self-actualization needs = Need for self-fulfillment

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Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Lower-order needs are fulfilled before the

higher-order needs• As each of these needs becomes substantially

satisfied, the next need becomes dominant• Implication: To motivate a person, leaders

have to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying those needs at or above that level.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationTheory X and Theory Y• Proposed by Douglas McGregor• Two distinct views of human beings: (a) Theory X – assumes subordinates dislike work, are lazy, and must be coerced to perform. (b) Theory Y – assumes subordinates like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self- direction • Implication: Theory X assumes lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes higher- order needs dominate individuals.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationHerzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory• Proposed by Frederick Herzberg• Herzberg conducted a research on 200 engineers and

accountants to investigate what do people want from their jobs.

• Found that “motivators” or “satisfiers” such as achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth lead to job satisfaction.

• “Hygiene” factors or “dissatisfiers” such as company policy, supervision, work conditions, salary, interpersonal relationships, status and security lead to dissatisfaction.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationSatisfaction-Dissatisfaction Continuum

Typical View: Satisfaction Dissatisfaction

Herzberg’s View: 1. Satisfaction No Satisfaction

2. Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Implication of Herzberg’s theory: - Factors leading to job satisfaction are

distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction.

- Leaders who seek to eliminate factors that create job dissatisfaction can bring about peace, but not necessarily motivation.

- To motivate, use intrinsically rewarding factors, e.g., emphasizing achievement, work itself, responsibility and growth.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationExistence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) Theory• Founded by Clayton Alderfer of Yale University who

reworked on Maslow’s theory.• Emphasized 3 needs (a) Existence needs = concerned with basic existence requirements (b) Relatedness needs = desire to maintain interpersonal relationships (c) Growth needs = intrinsic desire for personal development

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Contended: (a) No rigid step-like progression of needs (b) More than one need may be operative simultaneously (c) If gratification of a higher-level need is stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases• Implication: Frustration may lead to a regression to a

lower need e.g., inability to satisfy a need for social interaction might increase the desire for more money!

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationMcClelland’s Theory of Needs• Proposed by David McClelland• Focuses on 3 needs: (a) Need for Achievement (nAch) = the drive to excel/succeed (b) Need for Power (nPow) = the desire to control/influence others (c) Need for Affiliation (nAff) = the desire for close interpersonal relationships

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Implications: (a) nAch individuals need to attain realistic but

challenging goals. They need feedback on their performance.

(b) nPow individuals need to have impact. They prefer to be emplaced in competitive and status-oriented situations and are more concerned with prestige than effective performance.

(c) nAff individuals desire to be well-liked. They strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations, rather than competitive ones.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationVroom’s Expectancy Theory• Proposed by Victor Vroom (1964)• Examines motivation from the perspective of why

individuals choose to follow a particular course of action.

• Assumes people can be motivated to perform if they believe that there is a positive correlation between effort and reward.

• 3 variables involved in motivation:

Motivation = Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Valence = the importance individuals have with regards to

the outcomes or rewards. (What do subordinates value?)

Expectancy = the belief that effort leads to performance. (What

are the expectations of subordinates?) Instrumentality = the belief that if individuals perform as expected,

then they will get what they desired as promised. (Leaders must ensure promises of rewards are honored)

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation

Ability

Motivation Effort PerformanceOutcomes(Rewards) Satisfaction

Model of the Expectancy Theory

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Implication: Motivation is determined by perceived

expectancies, outcome values and a rational decision-making process.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationGoal-Setting Theory• Proposed by Edwin Locke• Intentions to work towards a goal are a major source of

motivation because goals tell a person what needs to be done and how much effort to expend.

• This theory is a cognitive approach and it states that: (a) Specific goals increase performance than a generalized goal, e.g., “Do your best.” (b) Difficult goals, when accepted, results in higher performance than easy goal. (c) Feedback leads to higher performance than does non-feedback.

Topic 4: Leadership and Motivation• Self-efficacy (the individual’s belief the he/she is

capable of performing the task), internal locus of control, and participative rather than assigned goals may affect the achievement of the goals.

• Implication: Direction, accuracy and clarity of goals are

important for attainment of goals. Participation of subordinates in the setting of goals and feedback are essential for goal achievement.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationBehavior Modification and MotivationBehavior Modification= the process of changing an undesired behavior to a

desirable one.= a systematic application of learning theories to bring

about a desired change in the pattern of behavior.Objectives of Behavior Modification1. Increase and maintain desirable behaviors.2. Decrease and make extinct undesirable behaviors.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationTheories of Behavior Modification- Please refer to slides on Theories of Learning

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationPrinciples of Behavior Change1. Human behavior is due to learning which is guided by the

laws of learning.2. Behavior is a product of learning, therefore, it can be

unlearned and corrected.3. Behavior is influenced by results/consequences. It is

strengthened by rewards and weakened by negative consequences.

4. Behavior is also controlled by internal and external factors.

5. Undesirable/maladjusted behavior can be changed by changing the environment (Nature vs nurture?)

6. Behavior is learnt by training, conditioning, or observing others.

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationManagement of Behavioral ChangeSteps:1. Identify the problem2. Setting goals3. Establishment of baseline data - gather data through observation, records,

research etc.4. Intervention selection - identify and implement intervention program5. Evaluation

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationMotivation and Students’ Orientation• Two types of students (Dweck,1986): (a) Learning oriented students - interested in achieving good grades - motivated to learn - positive perception towards self - willing to take up challenges - believe that intelligence is not fixed; the harder they work, the smarter they become (b) Image oriented students - more interested in looking smart/making a good impression - less motivated to work hard - believes intelligence is predetermined by brains, not due to effort - Self-esteem and pride are based on their impression management

Topic 4: Leadership and MotivationAttribution Theory and Achievement• Many studies have been conducted to examine

why some people are more motivated than others.

• According to Attribution theory (Weiner, 1980), high achievers have these characteristics:

- believe success is due to ability and effort. - Do not quit easily. - Choose moderate challenges - Work very hard