Civil Rights in AmericaCivil Rights in America

1865-1990s1865-1990s

Successes Failures

Union is restored. Many white southerners remain bitter toward the federal government and the Republican Party.

The South’s economy grows and new wealth is created in the North.

The South is slow to industrialize.

Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments guarantee African Americans the rights of citizenship, equal protection under the law, and suffrage.

After federal troops are withdrawn, southern state governments and terrorist organizations effectively deny African Americans the right to vote.

Freedmen’s Bureau and other organizations help many black families obtain housing, jobs, and schooling.

Many black and white southerners remain caught in a cycle of poverty.

Southern states adopt a system of mandatory education.

Racist attitudes toward African Americans continue, in both the South and the North.

Reactions to Freedom RidesReactions to Freedom Rides Americans were horrified by the violence which Americans were horrified by the violence which

had greeted the bus in Anniston.had greeted the bus in Anniston. Despite the potential danger involved, Freedom Despite the potential danger involved, Freedom

Rides continued during the summer. Many Rides continued during the summer. Many riders were arrested.riders were arrested.

Attorney General Attorney General Robert KennedyRobert Kennedy had had originally been opposed to lending federal originally been opposed to lending federal support to the Freedom Rides. However, he support to the Freedom Rides. However, he later sent federal marshals to protect the riders.later sent federal marshals to protect the riders.

Kennedy also pressured the Interstate Kennedy also pressured the Interstate Commerce Commission to prohibit segregation Commerce Commission to prohibit segregation in all interstate transportation. The Justice in all interstate transportation. The Justice Department began to sue communities that did Department began to sue communities that did not comply.not comply.

Integration at “Ole Miss”Integration at “Ole Miss” In 1961, James Meredith, an African American student In 1961, James Meredith, an African American student

at Jackson State College, applied for admission to the at Jackson State College, applied for admission to the all-white University of Mississippi, known as “Ole Miss.”all-white University of Mississippi, known as “Ole Miss.”

When Meredith was rejected, he sought help from the When Meredith was rejected, he sought help from the NAACP. The NAACP argued that Meredith’s application NAACP. The NAACP argued that Meredith’s application had been rejected on racial grounds. When the case had been rejected on racial grounds. When the case reached the Supreme Court, Meredith’s claim was reached the Supreme Court, Meredith’s claim was upheld.upheld.

Meredith continued to face problems as he enrolled at Meredith continued to face problems as he enrolled at Ole Miss. Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett personally Ole Miss. Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett personally blocked Meredith’s way to the admissions office, and blocked Meredith’s way to the admissions office, and violence erupted on campus.violence erupted on campus.

The situation became a standoff between the governor The situation became a standoff between the governor and the Justice Department. President Kennedy sent and the Justice Department. President Kennedy sent federal marshals to escort Meredith around campus.federal marshals to escort Meredith around campus.

Clash in BirminghamClash in BirminghamMarches in BirminghamMarches in Birmingham In April 1963, Martin In April 1963, Martin

Luther King joined the Luther King joined the Reverend Fred Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth in a civil Shuttlesworth in a civil rights campaign in rights campaign in Birmingham, Alabama.Birmingham, Alabama.

City officials ordered civil City officials ordered civil rights protesters to end rights protesters to end the march that was part the march that was part of this campaign. When of this campaign. When they did not, King and they did not, King and others were arrested.others were arrested.

While in Birmingham Jail, While in Birmingham Jail, King wrote a famous King wrote a famous letter defending his letter defending his tactics and his timing.tactics and his timing.

Response to the MarchesResponse to the Marches King was released King was released

more than a week later more than a week later and continued the and continued the campaign, making the campaign, making the difficult decision to difficult decision to allow young people to allow young people to participate.participate.

Police attacked the Police attacked the marchers with high-marchers with high-pressure fire hoses, pressure fire hoses, police dogs, and clubs. police dogs, and clubs. As television cameras As television cameras captured the violence, captured the violence, Americans around the Americans around the country were horrified.country were horrified.

Kennedy on Civil RightsKennedy on Civil Rights During the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy won During the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy won

the support of many African American voters.the support of many African American voters. Kennedy had voted for civil rights measures in the Kennedy had voted for civil rights measures in the

Senate but had not actively supported them. As Senate but had not actively supported them. As President, he moved slowly on civil rights issues, not President, he moved slowly on civil rights issues, not wanting to anger southern Democrats.wanting to anger southern Democrats.

Hours after Kennedy had given a speech against Hours after Kennedy had given a speech against discrimination, civil rights leader discrimination, civil rights leader Medgar Evers was was murdered. This murder made it clear that government murdered. This murder made it clear that government action was needed.action was needed.

After violence erupted in Birmingham in 1963, Kennedy After violence erupted in Birmingham in 1963, Kennedy introduced a stronger civil rights bill than he had introduced a stronger civil rights bill than he had originally planned. This bill called for an end to originally planned. This bill called for an end to segregation in public places and in situations where segregation in public places and in situations where federal funding was involved.federal funding was involved.

March on WashingtonMarch on Washington To focus national attention on Kennedy’s bill, To focus national attention on Kennedy’s bill,

civil rights leaders proposed a march in civil rights leaders proposed a march in Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. The March on Washington was held in August 1963.was held in August 1963.

More than 200,000 people came to the peaceful More than 200,000 people came to the peaceful and orderly march, including musicians, and orderly march, including musicians, religious leaders, and celebrities.religious leaders, and celebrities.

At the march, Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered At the march, Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered what was to become his best-known speech, “what was to become his best-known speech, “I Have a Dream.”.”

Despite the success of the march, Kennedy’s Despite the success of the march, Kennedy’s civil rights bill remained stalled in Congress.civil rights bill remained stalled in Congress.

Civil Rights Act of 1964Civil Rights Act of 1964Johnson’s RoleJohnson’s Role After Kennedy was After Kennedy was

assassinated, President assassinated, President Johnson worked to build Johnson worked to build support for Kennedy’s support for Kennedy’s civil rights bill.civil rights bill.

The house passed the The house passed the bill, but civil rights bill, but civil rights opponents in the Senate opponents in the Senate stalled it with a stalled it with a filibuster. . This This technique involved technique involved preventing a vote on a preventing a vote on a measure by taking the measure by taking the floor and refusing to floor and refusing to stop talking.stop talking.

The Act Is PassedThe Act Is Passed Johnson countered the Johnson countered the

filibuster with a filibuster with a procedure called procedure called cloture,, a three-fifths a three-fifths vote to limit debate vote to limit debate and call for a vote.and call for a vote.

In June 1964, the In June 1964, the Senate voted for Senate voted for cloture. Soon cloture. Soon afterwards, the bill afterwards, the bill passed, becoming the passed, becoming the Civil Rights Act of 1964..

Fighting for the VoteFighting for the Vote In 1964, leaders of the major civil rights groups In 1964, leaders of the major civil rights groups

organized a voter registration drive in Mississippi.organized a voter registration drive in Mississippi. About 1,000 African American and white About 1,000 African American and white

volunteers participated in what came to be called volunteers participated in what came to be called Freedom Summer.Freedom Summer.

Violence plagued Freedom Summer as volunteers Violence plagued Freedom Summer as volunteers were beaten, shot at, arrested, and murdered. were beaten, shot at, arrested, and murdered. African American churches and homes were African American churches and homes were burned and firebombed.burned and firebombed.

Members of SNCC along with newly registered Members of SNCC along with newly registered Mississippi voters organized the Mississippi Mississippi voters organized the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).

The MFDP sent delegates to the 1964 Democratic The MFDP sent delegates to the 1964 Democratic national convention, insisting that they were the national convention, insisting that they were the rightful representatives from Mississippi.rightful representatives from Mississippi.

The Selma MarchThe Selma March

To call attention to the issue of voting rights, To call attention to the issue of voting rights, King and other leaders decided to organize King and other leaders decided to organize marchers to walk from Selma, Alabama, to marchers to walk from Selma, Alabama, to Montgomery, about 50 miles away.Montgomery, about 50 miles away.

Violence erupted at the start of the march. Violence erupted at the start of the march. President Johnson sent military assistance to President Johnson sent military assistance to protect the marchers.protect the marchers.

When the march resumed, more people When the march resumed, more people joined it, making a total of about 25,000 joined it, making a total of about 25,000 marchers. marchers.

Voting Rights Act of 1965 & 24Voting Rights Act of 1965 & 24thth AmendmentAmendment

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 allowed The Voting Rights Act of 1965 allowed federal officials to register voters in places federal officials to register voters in places where local officials were preventing where local officials were preventing African Americans from registering. It also African Americans from registering. It also effectively eliminated literacy tests and effectively eliminated literacy tests and other barriers to voting.other barriers to voting.

The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1964, outlawed the Constitution, ratified in 1964, outlawed the poll tax, which was still in effect in several poll tax, which was still in effect in several southern states.southern states.

Malcolm X & Black PowerMalcolm X & Black Power Radical and militant political leaders emerged Radical and militant political leaders emerged

outside the mainstream civil rights movement. outside the mainstream civil rights movement. One of these leaders was One of these leaders was Malcolm X..

Born Malcolm Little, Malcolm X joined the Born Malcolm Little, Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam,, also called the Black Muslims, also called the Black Muslims, which which preached black preached black separatism and self-helpseparatism and self-help..

As a minister of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X As a minister of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X spread the ideas of spread the ideas of black nationalism, a , a belief in the separate identity and racial unity of belief in the separate identity and racial unity of the African American community.the African American community.

In 1964, Malcolm X made a pilgrimage to Mecca, In 1964, Malcolm X made a pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holy city of Islam. Seeing Saudi Arabia, the holy city of Islam. Seeing Muslims of all races praying together changed Muslims of all races praying together changed his views on separatism, but he had only nine his views on separatism, but he had only nine months to spread his new beliefs. months to spread his new beliefs. In February In February 1965, he was shot to death.1965, he was shot to death.

Self-SufficiencySelf-Sufficiency

The leader of the Nation of Islam, Elijah The leader of the Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad, also believed in black Muhammad, also believed in black nationalism.nationalism.

Elijah Muhammad did not believe in seeking Elijah Muhammad did not believe in seeking political change. He taught that Allah (the political change. He taught that Allah (the Muslim name for God) would bring about a Muslim name for God) would bring about a “Black Nation,” a union among all nonwhite “Black Nation,” a union among all nonwhite peoples. Meanwhile, he thought that blacks peoples. Meanwhile, he thought that blacks should lead righteous lives and work to should lead righteous lives and work to become economically self-sufficient.become economically self-sufficient.

Black Power MovementBlack Power MovementSNCC Shifts GearsSNCC Shifts Gears SNCC became more SNCC became more

radical under the radical under the leadership of leadership of Stokey Carmichael..

Carmichael advocated Carmichael advocated ideas of ideas of black power,, which called upon which called upon African Americans to African Americans to embrace their heritage, embrace their heritage, build communities, and build communities, and lead their own lead their own organizations.organizations.

Black power fostered Black power fostered racial pride but also led racial pride but also led to a major split in the to a major split in the civil rights movement.civil rights movement.

Black Panther Party

“…the nature of a panther is that if you push that black panther into a corner, he will try to go left to get out of your way. And if you keep him

there, then he's going to try to go right to get out of your way. And if you keep oppressing him and pushing him into that corner, sooner or later

that panther's going to come out of that corner to try to wipe out whoever's oppressing it in the corner…”

-Seale recalling Newton’s explanation of the Black Panther symbol

Beginnings:Beginnings: Historical context: Historical context:

a. Urban riots in Los a. Urban riots in Los Angeles, Detroit, Angeles, Detroit, Chicago, and Chicago, and HarlemHarlem

b. Protests against b. Protests against the Vietnam Warthe Vietnam War

Upset about Upset about unemployment, poor unemployment, poor housing conditions, housing conditions, poor health care, poor health care, police brutality, etc.police brutality, etc.

Beginnings:Beginnings: Founded in 1966 by:Founded in 1966 by:

a. Huey Newtona. Huey Newton

b. Bobby Sealeb. Bobby Seale

Took the symbol Took the symbol (black panther) (black panther) from Carmichael’s from Carmichael’s Lowndes County Lowndes County Freedom Freedom Organization in Organization in AlabamaAlabama

Ideology:Ideology: Adopted Malcolm Adopted Malcolm

X’s belief in armed X’s belief in armed self-defenseself-defense

Established Established organizations organizations withinwithin the the community to community to remedy problemsremedy problems

State Capitol March:State Capitol March:May 1967May 1967

Protested Mulford Protested Mulford Act (“Panther Bill”)-Act (“Panther Bill”)-would repeal the would repeal the law allowing law allowing citizens to carry citizens to carry loaded weapons as loaded weapons as long as they were long as they were openly displayedopenly displayed

Brought national Brought national attention to partyattention to party

Chapters organized Chapters organized across the countryacross the country

Huey Newton:Huey Newton:(1942-1989)(1942-1989)

FounderFounder Born in LouisianaBorn in Louisiana Family eventually Family eventually

moved to Oakland, CAmoved to Oakland, CA Several skirmishes with Several skirmishes with

the law (“Free Huey”)the law (“Free Huey”) Received Ph.D. in social Received Ph.D. in social

philosophy at UC-Santa philosophy at UC-Santa Cruz in 1980Cruz in 1980

Murdered in Oakland, Murdered in Oakland, CA on August 22, 1989CA on August 22, 1989

““Free Huey”:Free Huey”: Oct. 1967: Stopped Oct. 1967: Stopped

by Oakland policeby Oakland police Dec. 1967: Black Dec. 1967: Black

Panthers unite to Panthers unite to support Newtonsupport Newton

Sept. 1968: Found Sept. 1968: Found guilty of voluntary guilty of voluntary manslaughtermanslaughter

Aug. 1970: After Aug. 1970: After numerous appeals, numerous appeals, charges are dropped charges are dropped and Newton is set freeand Newton is set free

David Hilliard:David Hilliard:Chief of StaffChief of Staff

One of the first members of One of the first members of the partythe party

Took over when Newton was Took over when Newton was in jail (1967-1970)in jail (1967-1970)

1969: Imprisoned for 1969: Imprisoned for carrying loaded gun in public carrying loaded gun in public place (violated Mulford Act of place (violated Mulford Act of 1967)1967)

1993: Established the Huey 1993: Established the Huey P. Newton Foundation with P. Newton Foundation with Fredrika Newton (Huey’s Fredrika Newton (Huey’s wife)wife)

Bobby Seale:Bobby Seale:(1936-present)(1936-present)

Co-founder &Co-founder & ChairmanChairman Born in TexasBorn in Texas Served in the U.S. Air Served in the U.S. Air

Force but was Force but was discharged for bad discharged for bad conductconduct

Met Newton while Met Newton while attending Merritt attending Merritt College in Oakland, CACollege in Oakland, CA

Arrested multiple Arrested multiple timestimes

Eldridge Cleaver:Eldridge Cleaver:(1935-1998)(1935-1998)

Minister of InformationMinister of Information

•Wrote Soul on Ice and Soul on Fire

•Ran into trouble with the law and fled with his wife to escape charges

•Born in Arkansas

•Joined Black Panthers in 1967

Eldridge Cleaver:Eldridge Cleaver:TransformationTransformation

Returned to U.S. in 1975 Returned to U.S. in 1975 a changed mana changed man

Renounced the partyRenounced the party Became a born-again Became a born-again

ChristianChristian Ran unsuccessfully for Ran unsuccessfully for

senator of CA (had run senator of CA (had run for President in 1968 for President in 1968 under the Peace and under the Peace and Freedom Party)Freedom Party)

Stokely Carmichael:Stokely Carmichael:(1941-1998)(1941-1998)

Honorary Prime MinisterHonorary Prime Minister

NAG and SNCC NAG and SNCC leaderleader

Joined Black Joined Black Panthers in 1967Panthers in 1967

Against Newton’s Against Newton’s belief in working belief in working withwith white allies white allies and consequently and consequently left the partyleft the party

Other Prominent Members:Other Prominent Members:

Fred Hampton H. Rap Brown

George Jackson Bobby Hutton

Other Prominent Members:Other Prominent Members:

Fredrika Newton

Kathleen Cleaver

Angela Davis

Food Programs:Food Programs:Collected donations of food and supplies from Collected donations of food and supplies from

local merchants and provided hot meals for local merchants and provided hot meals for children and food giveaways to entire families…children and food giveaways to entire families…

Free Clothing:Free Clothing:

“Black Panther Party members went out and asked businessmen to donate sets of clothes, for school children on up to teenagers. We tried to get brand new clothing, because black people are tired of hand-me-downs.”

-Bobby Seale

Health Clinics:Health Clinics:"She [Sheeba Haven] recruited people to train her in how to run the clinic. Dr. Tolbert Small was the clinic's physician, but Haven served as its first office manager. Party members were sent to the clinic as their work assignment. Haven developed a reputation for being somewhat of a staff sergeant. She demanded cleanliness, and sterile procedures.“

-Hugh Parson

Other Accomplishments:Other Accomplishments: Brought attention to Brought attention to

poor prison conditionspoor prison conditions Protested against Protested against

police brutalitypolice brutality Increased voter Increased voter

registrationregistration Inspired other groups Inspired other groups

to formto forma. Brown Beretsa. Brown Beretsb. Red Guardb. Red Guardc. Young Lordsc. Young Lordsd. Gray Panthersd. Gray Panthers

COINTELPRO:COINTELPRO:

Stood for Counter-Intelligence ProgramStood for Counter-Intelligence Program Purpose was to "expose, disrupt, Purpose was to "expose, disrupt,

misdirect, discredit, or otherwise misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize the activities of the Black neutralize the activities of the Black nationalists" (according to FBI nationalists" (according to FBI documents)documents)

Informants in the partyInformants in the party Assassinations of party leaders and Assassinations of party leaders and

membersmembers

Decline of the Party:Decline of the Party:Late 1970sLate 1970s

Disintegration of the original Disintegration of the original leadershipleadership

Many members imprisoned, killed, or Many members imprisoned, killed, or expelled during 1968-1972expelled during 1968-1972

Internal stress within the leadershipInternal stress within the leadership Substance abuseSubstance abuse FBI and COINTELPRO’s efforts to FBI and COINTELPRO’s efforts to

destroy the partydestroy the party

Black Power VideoBlack Power Video Cleveland’s mayoral electionCleveland’s mayoral election Attempt to elect first black mayor in America --Attempt to elect first black mayor in America --

Carl Stokes—wins primary-voter education Carl Stokes—wins primary-voter education processprocess

Stokes was elected mayor of America’s 10Stokes was elected mayor of America’s 10thth largest city by a narrow marginlargest city by a narrow margin

Oakland, CA Rise of the Black PanthersOakland, CA Rise of the Black Panthers Observed police actions against black community Observed police actions against black community

membersmembers Carried loaded guns in public in accordance with Carried loaded guns in public in accordance with

the lawthe law Charged with disturbing the peaceCharged with disturbing the peace Hate for oppression-- not whites Hate for oppression-- not whites Death of a police man puts more pressure on Death of a police man puts more pressure on

Panthers—Newton is arrestedPanthers—Newton is arrested SNCC=Student Non-Violent Coordinating SNCC=Student Non-Violent Coordinating

Committee joins together with the PanthersCommittee joins together with the Panthers

Decline of the Party:Decline of the Party:

Elaine Brown Elaine Brown became the new became the new party leaderparty leader

Obtained funds to Obtained funds to build 300 new build 300 new housing units housing units

Project to rebuild Project to rebuild downtown provided downtown provided 10,000 new jobs10,000 new jobs

Party died out by the Party died out by the end of the 1970send of the 1970s

Tragedy of 1968Tragedy of 1968Assassination of Martin Assassination of Martin

Luther King, Jr.Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King was Martin Luther King was

fatally shot on April 4, fatally shot on April 4, 1968, while mobilizing 1968, while mobilizing support for the Poor support for the Poor People’s Campaign, an People’s Campaign, an effort to reduce effort to reduce economic injustice.economic injustice.

King’s death provoked King’s death provoked violent riots in more violent riots in more than 120 cities. than 120 cities. Following his death, Following his death, many Americans lost many Americans lost faith in the idea of faith in the idea of nonviolent change. nonviolent change.

Assassination of Robert F. Assassination of Robert F. KennedyKennedy

Robert F. Kennedy was Robert F. Kennedy was another major advocate another major advocate for civil rights.for civil rights.

Kennedy was shot by an Kennedy was shot by an assassin while assassin while campaigning for the campaigning for the 1968 Democratic 1968 Democratic presidential nomination, presidential nomination, hours after winning hours after winning California’s primary.California’s primary.

Kennedy’s death ended Kennedy’s death ended many people’s hopes for many people’s hopes for an inspirational leader an inspirational leader who could help heal the who could help heal the nation’s wounds.nation’s wounds.

Black Panther QuestionsBlack Panther Questions

What impression did the Black What impression did the Black Panthers make on America during Panthers make on America during the Civil Rights Movement?the Civil Rights Movement?

Were the Black Panthers successful? Were the Black Panthers successful? Explain…Explain…

How did the techniques of the How did the techniques of the Panthers differ from that of more Panthers differ from that of more prominent Civil Rights leaders like prominent Civil Rights leaders like MLK Jr.?MLK Jr.?

Background of Women’s MovementBackground of Women’s Movement The 1960s saw a resurgence of The 1960s saw a resurgence of feminism,, a term a term

first used in 1895 to describe the theory of first used in 1895 to describe the theory of political, economic, and social equality of men and political, economic, and social equality of men and women.women.

The women’s movement in the 1960s sought to The women’s movement in the 1960s sought to change aspects of American life that had been change aspects of American life that had been accepted for decades. More women had begun to accepted for decades. More women had begun to achieve higher levels of education, and many achieve higher levels of education, and many desired the same available to men.desired the same available to men.

The The civil rights movement civil rights movement helped give the helped give the women’s rights movement inspiration, strategies, women’s rights movement inspiration, strategies, and legal tools. Women who worked for civil rights and legal tools. Women who worked for civil rights applied the skills they had gained to the women’s applied the skills they had gained to the women’s movement. movement.

Many women were frustrated to discover that the Many women were frustrated to discover that the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission set up Equal Employment Opportunity Commission set up by the 1964 by the 1964 Civil Rights Act did not take women’s Civil Rights Act did not take women’s discrimination claims seriouslydiscrimination claims seriously. .

Women’s Groups OrganizeWomen’s Groups Organize Betty Friedan’s 1963 book Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine

Mystique became an important influence in became an important influence in the women’s movement.the women’s movement.

Women began forming consciousness-raising Women began forming consciousness-raising groups dedicated to increasing their groups dedicated to increasing their members’ awareness of women’s situation in members’ awareness of women’s situation in society.society.

In 1966, a group of 28 professional women, In 1966, a group of 28 professional women, including Betty Friedan, formed the including Betty Friedan, formed the National Organization for Women (NOW).

NOW advocated women’s issues such as fair NOW advocated women’s issues such as fair pay, equal job opportunities, a more realistic pay, equal job opportunities, a more realistic portrayal of women in the media, and a more portrayal of women in the media, and a more even balance of responsibilities in marriage.even balance of responsibilities in marriage.

Betty FriedanBetty Friedan

"The purpose of NOW is to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men."

Roe v. WadeRoe v. Wade NOW and other groups worked to reform laws NOW and other groups worked to reform laws

governing a woman’s decision to choose governing a woman’s decision to choose abortion abortion instead of continuing an unwanted instead of continuing an unwanted pregnancy.pregnancy.

In 1973, the In 1973, the Supreme Court legalized abortion Supreme Court legalized abortion in its in its RoeRoe v. v. Wade Wade decisiondecision. The verdict in this . The verdict in this case was, and remains, highly controversial.case was, and remains, highly controversial.

The decision established the trimester rule on The decision established the trimester rule on the principle of “viable life”: states cannot the principle of “viable life”: states cannot prohibit abortion in the 1prohibit abortion in the 1stst tri, can only place tri, can only place very limited restrictions during the 2very limited restrictions during the 2ndnd tri, and tri, and may protect the fetus during the 3may protect the fetus during the 3rdrd trimester. trimester.

Equal Rights AmendmentEqual Rights Amendment

The The Equal Rights AmendmentEqual Rights Amendment was a was a proposed Constitutional amendment proposed Constitutional amendment to guarantee equality between men and to guarantee equality between men and womenwomen

Political conservatives such as Political conservatives such as Phyllis SchlaflyPhyllis Schlafly opposed the ERA, arguing it opposed the ERA, arguing it would would hurt familieshurt families and allow the military to and allow the military to draft women.draft women.

Although the ERA was at first highly Although the ERA was at first highly supported, it failed to gain ratification by supported, it failed to gain ratification by the necessary number of states and was, the necessary number of states and was, therefore, therefore, not added to the Constitution.not added to the Constitution.

Voices of Ethnic ProtestVoices of Ethnic Protest Like African Americans, other minority groups Like African Americans, other minority groups

demanded equal rights after World War II.demanded equal rights after World War II. Mexican Americans found that peaceful Mexican Americans found that peaceful

protest could slowly bring about some of their protest could slowly bring about some of their goals. Groups such as the Community Service goals. Groups such as the Community Service Organization and the Organization and the Asociación Nacional Asociación Nacional México-AmericanaMéxico-Americana worked toward these goals. worked toward these goals.

Native Americans faced problems of poverty, Native Americans faced problems of poverty, discrimination, and little real political discrimination, and little real political representation. The 1953 government policy representation. The 1953 government policy of of termination,termination, or elimination of reservations, or elimination of reservations, met with resistance and was eventually met with resistance and was eventually discarded.discarded.

Latino MovementsLatino Movements Latinos,, or people whose family origins are in or people whose family origins are in

Spanish-speaking Latin America, made up a Spanish-speaking Latin America, made up a growing percentage of the American population growing percentage of the American population in the 1960s and 1970s.in the 1960s and 1970s.

Specific groups of Latinos tended to settle in Specific groups of Latinos tended to settle in certain areas. Mexican Americans, also known as certain areas. Mexican Americans, also known as Chicanos, settled in the West and Southwest. Chicanos, settled in the West and Southwest. Many Cuban immigrants settled in Florida, while Many Cuban immigrants settled in Florida, while Puerto Ricans moved to the Northeast.Puerto Ricans moved to the Northeast.

Chicano activists began encouraging Mexican Chicano activists began encouraging Mexican Americans to take pride in their culture and its Americans to take pride in their culture and its dual heritage from Spain and the ancient cultures dual heritage from Spain and the ancient cultures of Mexico.of Mexico.

Some Chicano activists claimed that non-Latinos Some Chicano activists claimed that non-Latinos had undermined Mexican Americans’ control over had undermined Mexican Americans’ control over their own lives. Poor conditions in Latino their own lives. Poor conditions in Latino neighborhoods supported this claim. neighborhoods supported this claim.

After World War I, the United States limited immigration from Europe.

Beginning with World War II, the U.S. experienced a growing demand for inexpensive labor.

At the same time, Latin American countries had increasing populations and shrinking job opportunities.

Three factors created a steady stream of Latin American immigrants to the United States.

1

2

3

Beginning in 1942, Mexican immigrants came to the United States under the farmhand program, which granted them temporary guest-worker status.

These Latino farm workers played an important role in U.S. agriculture during and after World War II.

The U.S. Latino population has grown steadily ever since.

In 1965, the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments made Latino immigration easier.

Like other minorities, Latinos fought for equal rights.

Migrant farmworkers worked long hours in poor conditions for low pay.

Cesar Chavez organized these workers to form the United Farm Workers union,

or UFW.

“To be a man is to suffer for others”

Cesar Chavez

Chavez and the UFWChavez and the UFW

Migrant farm workers,Migrant farm workers, who moved from who moved from farm to farm providing needed labor, were farm to farm providing needed labor, were among the country’s most exploited among the country’s most exploited workers.workers.

In the 1960s, activists In the 1960s, activists Cesar Chavez and and Dolores Huerta Dolores Huerta organized Mexican field organized Mexican field hands into what became the hands into what became the United Farm United Farm Workers (UFW).Workers (UFW).

Using the tactics of Using the tactics of nonviolent actionnonviolent action, the , the UFW UFW won collective bargaining rights won collective bargaining rights for for Latino migrant farm workers in California.Latino migrant farm workers in California.

Political and Legal TacticsPolitical and Legal Tactics

Some Chicanos sought change by running Some Chicanos sought change by running for political office. Several won seats in the for political office. Several won seats in the House and Senate.House and Senate.

New political groups, including New political groups, including La Raza La Raza Unida Unida (The United Race), formed to work for (The United Race), formed to work for better housing and jobs.better housing and jobs.

Legal aid for Mexican Americans was Legal aid for Mexican Americans was provided by the Mexican American Legal provided by the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, an Defense and Educational Fund, an organization which also encouraged organization which also encouraged Mexican American students to become Mexican American students to become lawyers.lawyers.

Native AmericansNative Americans As the original occupants of North America, Native As the original occupants of North America, Native

Americans have always occupied a unique social and Americans have always occupied a unique social and legal position in the United States.legal position in the United States.

Issues of land claims between Native Americans and Issues of land claims between Native Americans and state and federal governments continued. state and federal governments continued.

One such issue involved Seneca-owned land in New One such issue involved Seneca-owned land in New York State on which the federal government wanted York State on which the federal government wanted to build a dam. Congress agreed to pay damages to to build a dam. Congress agreed to pay damages to the Seneca, but these payments did not restore their the Seneca, but these payments did not restore their hunting and fishing lands, homes, or sacred sites.hunting and fishing lands, homes, or sacred sites.

A new activist organization called the A new activist organization called the American Indian Movement (AIM) was formed in 1968 to was formed in 1968 to push for enforcement of treaties, better living push for enforcement of treaties, better living conditions, and more opportunities for Native conditions, and more opportunities for Native Americans. AIM later began to fight for Native Americans. AIM later began to fight for Native American legal rights as well, including American legal rights as well, including autonomy,autonomy, or or self-government.self-government.

Native American ConfrontationsNative American Confrontations In 1972, demonstrators In 1972, demonstrators

protested the violation of protested the violation of treaties between the treaties between the United States and various United States and various Indian groups by Indian groups by occupying the occupying the Bureau of Bureau of Indian AffairsIndian Affairs in in Washington, D.C.Washington, D.C.

In 1969, Native American In 1969, Native American protestors attempted to protestors attempted to claim claim AlcatrazAlcatraz Island in Island in San Francisco Bay.San Francisco Bay.

In 1973, AIM led a standoff In 1973, AIM led a standoff at the at the Oglala SiouxOglala Sioux village of village of Wounded Wounded KneeKnee, refusing to leave , refusing to leave until the government until the government agreed to investigate poor agreed to investigate poor conditions there.conditions there.

To bring jobs and income To bring jobs and income to reservations, the to reservations, the Kennedy and Johnson Kennedy and Johnson administrations administrations encouraged industries to encouraged industries to locate there. This plan, locate there. This plan, however, did not meet however, did not meet with Native American with Native American approval.approval.

Several laws passed in Several laws passed in the 1970s, including the the 1970s, including the Indian Education Act Indian Education Act of 1972of 1972 and the and the Indian Indian Self-Determination Self-Determination and Educational and Educational Assistance Act of Assistance Act of 19751975, favored Native , favored Native American rights.American rights.

Student ActivismStudent Activism Students for a Democratic Society and the New Students for a Democratic Society and the New

LeftLeft — Organized in 1960, Students for a — Organized in 1960, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) had a major impact on Democratic Society (SDS) had a major impact on the the New Left, a political movement that , a political movement that advocated radical changes to deal with problems advocated radical changes to deal with problems such as poverty and racism.such as poverty and racism.

The Teach-in MovementThe Teach-in Movement — Begun at the University — Begun at the University of Michigan in March 1965, of Michigan in March 1965, teach-ins, or special , or special sessions at which issues concerning the war could sessions at which issues concerning the war could be discussed, soon became a popular means of be discussed, soon became a popular means of expressing antiwar sentiment. expressing antiwar sentiment.

Continued ProtestsContinued Protests — Hundreds of demonstrations — Hundreds of demonstrations continued at colleges and universities around the continued at colleges and universities around the country. One of the most dramatic, at Columbia country. One of the most dramatic, at Columbia University in New York City, linked the issues of University in New York City, linked the issues of civil rights and the war.civil rights and the war.