Civil Rights Movement and The Warren Court (1960s) We preach freedom around the world, but are we to say to the world, and much more importantly, to each other, that this is a land of the free except for Negroes?" - President John F. Kennedy, 11 June 1963 Like a Mighty Stream CRM in the 1960s The Civil Rights Movement gained momentum during the Kennedy and Johnson presidencies A close election in 1960 influenced President Kennedy not to press the issue of civil rights, but the defiance of Southern governors to federal court rulings on integration forced a showdown In 1962, James Meredith attempted to enroll in the University of Mississippi (federal court guaranteed his right to attend) When violence and rioting broke out on the campus of the university, Kennedy sent 400 federal marshals and 3,000 troops Another incident occurred in Alabama in 1963 when Governor George Wallace tried to stop the enrollment of an African American student at the University of Alabama (Kennedy sent troops) James Meredith in 1962 The Leadership of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Throughout the Deep South, civil rights activists and freedom riders who traveled through the South registering African Americans to vote and integrating public places were met with bombs, beatings, and murder MLK Jr. was committed to nonviolent direct action protest against segregation which led to the 1963 Birmingham Campaign Martin Luther King, Jr., a year later in 1964, promoting the book Why We Can't Wait, based on his "Letter from Birmingham Jail" The Birmingham Campaign (1963) This campaign was a strategic movement organized by SCLC to bring attention to the unequal treatment of black Americans in Birmingham, Alabama. The campaign ran during the spring of 1963, culminating in widely publicized confrontations between black youth and white civic authorities In the early 1960s, Birmingham was one of the most racially divided cities in the United States Black citizens faced legal and economic disparities as well as violent retribution when they attempted to bring attention to their problems. The Birmingham Campaign continued Protests in Birmingham began with a boycott to pressure business leaders to provide employment opportunities to people of all races, and end segregation in public facilities, restaurants, and stores. When business leaders resisted the boycott, SCLC organizers began what they termed Project C, a series of sit-ins and marches intended to provoke mass arrests. After the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, high school, college, and elementary students were trained by SCLC to participate, resulting in hundreds of arrests and an instant intensification of national media attention on the campaign. Bill Hudson's image of Parker High School student Walter Gadsden being attacked by dogs was published in The New York Times on May 4, 1963. The Birmingham Campaign continued To dissuade demonstrators and control the protests the Birmingham Police Department, led by Eugene "Bull" Connor, used high-pressure water jets and police dogs on children and bystanders. Media coverage of these events brought intense scrutiny on racial segregation in the South. Scenes of the ensuing mayhem caused an international outcry, leading to federal intervention by the Kennedy administration. By the end of the campaign, King's reputation surged, Connor lost his job, the "Jim Crow" signs in Birmingham came down, and public places became more open to blacks. High school students are hit by a high-pressure water jet from a firehose during a protest in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963, as photographed by Charles Moore. Images like this one, printed in Life, inspired international support for the demonstrators. The Birmingham Campaign continued The Birmingham campaign was a model of direct action protest, as it effectively shut down the city. By attracting media attention to the adverse treatment of black Americans, it brought national force to bear on the issue of segregation. President Kennedy addressed the nation and called the racism and segregation in the nation a moral issue Although desegregation occurred slowly in Birmingham, the campaign was a major factor in the national push towards the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited racial discrimination in hiring practices and public services in the United States. John F. Kennedy addressing the nation about Civil Rights on June 11, 1963 Martin Luther King Has a Dream In 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. led a march on Washington D.C. On August 8, 1963 over 250,000 people marched on the nations capital Martin Luther King Jr. inspired the nation with his I Have a Dream Speech Martin Luther King Jr. in front of the Lincoln Memorial Freedom Summer Freedom Summer (also known as the Mississippi Summer Project) was a campaign launched in June 1964 to attempt to register as many African American voters as possible In Mississippi, which had historically excluded most blacks from voting, the project also set up dozens of Freedom Schools, Freedom Houses, and community centers to aid the local black population. UC Berkeley Campus in Location of 'Freedom Summer' Protests and Civil Rights Movements March to Montgomery When a voting rights march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965 was met with police beatings, President Johnson sent in the troops to protect Dr. King and other protesters Nevertheless, young African Americans were losing patience with the slow progress toward equality and the continued violence against their people by white extremists Alabama state troopers attack civil-rights demonstrators outside Selma, Alabama, on Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965 A Shift in the CRM A shift in the Civil Rights Movement took place in the mid-1960s from a doctrine of nonviolence to the increasing popularity of Black Power. After a failed attempt to assassinate James Meredith along his planned march from Memphis to Jackson in 1966, a young leader of SNCC named Stokely Carmichael advocated Black Power Carmichaels popularity signaled a change in what many blacks wanted and how they would achieve these goals Carmichael amidst a demonstration near the United States Capitol protesting the House of Representatives' action denying Rep. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., his seat, 1967 Black Muslims and Malcolm X Seeking a new cultural identity based on Africa and Islam, the black Muslim leader Elijah Muhammad preached black nationalism, separatism, and self-improvement Muhammad attracted thousands of followers including Malcolm X, a controversial figure who criticized MLK Jr. as an Uncle Tom Malcolm X advocated self-defense using black violence to counter white violence He eventually left the black Muslims to form the Organization of Afro-American Unity-he was assassinated shortly after The Autobiography of Malcolm X remains an engaging testimony of Malcolm Xs life experience Malcolm X advocated black nationalism which was a doctrine that called for complete separation from white society The Nations Black Ghettos Explode By the 1960s, almost 70 percent of African-Americans lived in large cities Urban blacks were often concentrated in ethnic ghettos Race riots in 1965 exploded into Watts, an African-American ghetto in Los Angeles African-Americans were frustrated about poverty, prejudice, and police mistreatment The Watts riot lasted six days (34 people died, 900 injured, 45 million in damages) Police arrest a man during the riots The Nations Black Ghettos Explode Over the next few years riots would erupt in Chicago, Detroit, and Newark President Johnson established the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorder to examine the causes of the riots The Kerner Commission concluded that the nation was moving toward two societies, one black, one white-separate and unequal In 1966 the Black Panther Party was founded in Oakland, California, and was organized by Huey Newton, Bobby Seale and other militants Black Panther Party founders Bobby Seale and Huey P. Newton standing in the street, armed with a Colt.45 and a shotgun Murder in Memphis Martin Luther King Jr. received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, but his non- violent approach was under increasing pressure from all sides His efforts to use peaceful protests in urban centers of the North met with little success King also broke with President Johnson over the Vietnam War In April of 1968, the nation was shocked over the news that King was assassinated on a motel balcony in Memphis Massive riots erupted in 168 cities- leaving 46 people dead Martin Luther King stands with Hosea Williams, Jesse Jackson and Ralph Abernathy on the balcony of the Lorraine Motel on April 3, 1968, a day before he was assassinated at approximately the same place. Achieving Landmark Civil Rights Legislation The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed major forms of discrimination against African Americans and women, including racial segregation. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public This act also created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to end racial and gender discrimination in employment The Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African Americans (literacy exams and poll taxes) The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution prohibited poll taxes Achieving Landmark Civil Rights Legislation continued Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination in housing by prohibiting discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, or national origin Affirmative Action: a policy that calls on employers to actively seek to increase the number of minorities in their workforce The Warren Court and Individual Rights As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1953 to 1969, Earl Warren had an impact on the nation comparable to that of John Marshall in the early 1800s In the 1960s the Warren Court had a profound effect on the criminal justice system, the political system of the states, and the definition of individual rights Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Earl Warren Criminal Justice Among the many decisions of the Warren Court concerning a defendants rights, these were most important: (1)Mapp v. Ohio (1961): rules that illegally seized evidence cannot be used in court against the accused (2)Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): required that state courts provide counsel for indigent (poor) defendants (3)Escobedo v. Illinois (1964): required the police to inform an arrested person of his or her right to remain silent (4)Miranda v. Arizona (1966): extended the ruling in Escobedo to include the right to a lawyer being present during questioning by the police Reapportionment Before 1962, it was common for at least one house of a state legislature to be based upon the drawing of district lines (strongly favored rural areas) The Warren Courts decision in the landmark case of Baker v. Carr declared such practices to be unconstitutional This case established the principle of one man, one vote (equal representation for all of a states citizens) Baker v. Carr was such an important court case that there are many books about it Freedom of Expression and Privacy Other rulings of the Warren Court extended the rights mentioned in the First Amendment to protect radical actions of demonstrators and students These cases allowed for greater latitude under the freedom of the press, to ban religious activities from public schools, and to guarantee adults rights to use contraceptives (1)Yates v. United States (1957): said the First Amendment protected radical and revolutionary speech unless it was a clear and present danger to the safety of the nation (2)Engel v. Vitale (1962): ruled that state laws requiring prayers and Bible readings in the public schools violated the First Amendment (separation of church and state) (3)Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): ruled in recognition of a citizens right to privacy (use of contraceptives) Warren Courts Impact The Warren Courts defense of the rights of unpopular groups and of the freedoms of accused criminals provoked a storm of controversy Critics even called for the impeachment of Earl Warren Both supporters and critics, however, agreed that the decisions of the Warren Court caused profound and pervasive revolution in the interpretation of constitutional rights An "Impeach Earl Warren sign," posted in San Francisco in October 1958 Key Names, Events, and Terms Civil Rights Act of 1964 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Twenty-fourth Amendment Voting Rights Act of 1965 James Meredith Martin Luther King Jr. March on Washington; :I Have a Dream Speech Black Muslims Malcolm X Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Affirmative Action Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Stokely Carmichael Black Panthers Watts riots Kerner Commission Warren Court Civil Rights Act of 1968 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Gideon v. Wainwright Edcobedo v. Illinois Miranda v. Arizona reapportionment Key Names, Events, and Terms Baker v. Carr one man, one vote Yates v. United States separation of church and state Engel v. Vitale Question Which of the following was NOT a ruling of the Warren Court? (a)All election districts must provide equal representation for voters (b)The courts must provide lawyers for poor defendants (c)Police must advise suspects of their rights to remain silent (d)The right to life of an unborn child is guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment (e)State-required prayers and Bible readings in public schools violated the First Amendment Answer D: The right to life of an unborn child is guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment