CJE-09 Bickmore Aug20,06

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CANADIANJOURNALOFEDUCATION29,2(2006):1340

DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)?REPRESENTATIONSOF

SOCIALCONFLICTINCANADIANPUBLIC

SCHOOLCURRICULUM

KathyBickmore

Abstract:

Keywords:

Resume:

Motscls:

_________________


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14 KATHYBICKMORE

Public schoolingcontributes toyoungpeoplespreparation for roles in

societysinevitableconflicts,includingredressofinjustice. Inthisarticle,

Iexaminehowconflict, socialdiversity,violence/peace,and (in)justice

are expressed in official curriculum expectations in English Language

Arts,Health,andSocialSciencescurricula,grade110,inthreeCanadian

provinces: NovaScotia,Manitoba,andOntario. Curriculumdiscourse

reinforces certain ways of thinking and delegitimates othersfor

example, encouraging or inhibiting diverse students development of

agency fordemocraticengagement inhandling social conflict. Formal

guidelinesby no means determine classroom practice: teachers, too,

haveagency! However,officialcurriculadoreflectpublicunderstanding

and political will, and help to shape the resources available for

implementedcurriculum.Inthecomplexenvironmentsofpluralisticsocieties,socialconflictis

a constant, but it can be handled constructively and nonviolently

(Bickmore, 2004b). Citizensnegotiate, throughgovernments, the rules

bywhich rights anddifferences are regulated (Kymlicka, 2003). Thus

peace is built upon imperfectly democratic management of social

conflict. Susan Bickford (1996) describes political communication as

creating a path toward understanding anothers experience: not to

erasethedistance,buttobeabletospeak,listen,andacttogetheracross

it, in the interests of democracy (p. 171). Similarly, citizenship

educationcouldequipmembersofdiversesocialgroups tobuildpaths

towardunderstanding

and

democratic

decision

making

embracing

andhandlingconflict,rather thanerasingdifferences. Schooling isone

social institution that simultaneously facilitates, shapes, and impedes

suchconflictmanagement.

Public schooling, a project of the state, has abuiltin mandate to

legitimate the existing (inequitable) social order (Curle, Freire, &

Galtung, 1974). At the same time, social and political institutions are

made up of humanbeings,whose passive consent and active agency

continually ebb, flow, and reshape them. Competing discourses and

goalscoexist(oftenembedded inthesamecurriculumdocuments),and

arebroughttobearoneveryaspectofschooling(Carnoy&Levin,1985).

Dominantculturalnormsandnarrativesaboutjustice, identity,conflict,

violence, and enmity are both perpetuated and challenged, by


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DEMOCRATICSOCIALCOHESION(ASSIMILATION)? 15

individualsandgroups, through schoolpolicyaswellas implemented

curriculumpractices.

Itisnaturalforthestatetoattempttofostersocialcohesionthrough

school curriculum. However, that cohesive impulse canbe primarily

democratic,basedondiversityandpluralism,orprimarilyassimilational

(BearNicholas,1996;Mtrai,2002;Tawil&Harley,2004). Democratic

social cohesion implies encouragement ofboth significant diversity of

identitiesandviewpoints,andsignificantcitizenagency.

Developing young peoples agency through schooling is more

problematic than it sounds. Citizens choices are somewhat

autonomous, but also constituted and constrained by what they

experienceandunderstandasknown. Forexample,teachingCanadian

identity as if equity and mutual tolerance have been alreadyaccomplished could silence students inevitably more checkered lived

experience and deemphasize their capacity to do something about

continuing injustice. In societies that see themselves as harmonious,

dissentersanddissentmaybeunjustlymarginalized (Merelman,1990).

Notions of agency also tend to embody individualism, rather than

highlightingcollective/cumulativecapacitytoinfluencesocialstructures.

Theundersideisanunfoundedassumptionofunconstrainedindividual

freedom and responsibility that can easily slip into blaming and

devaluingbothdissentersandthosewithlowstatus.

However, ignoring diverse students agency is as dangerous as

takingindividual

autonomy

for

granted.

Where

curriculum

reinforces

student passivity and disengagement by marginalizing conflicting

viewpoints, itdenies thosestudentsopportunities todevelopskillsand

understandings of themselves as social actors (citizens). This

marginalization is especially undemocratic for lowerstatus students,

whoseagency inrelation toschoolknowledge ismostrigidlycurtailed

(Anyon,1981). Agency fordemocraticsocialcohesionrequirescitizens

to understand how particular actionsmay contribute to, and impede,

social(in)justice.

Typically,Canadianpubliceducationalpracticehasnotemphasized

criticaldemocraticengagement(Sears,Clarke,&Hughes,1999). Yetthe

contradictionsanddynamicnegotiationofprioritieswithin the system

create cracks in the edifice that canbecome opportunities for critical


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16 KATHYBICKMORE

transformative work (Ellsworth, 1997; Freire, 1998). Public education

often reinforces structural/cultural violence,but it can also strengthen

teachers and students agency to promote democratic social cohesion

(Bush & Saltarelli, 2000; Davies, 2004). Thus I probe the citizenship

implicationsof the implicitandexpliciteducationaboutconflict that is

embeddedintheofficialcurriculum.

METHOD

Inthisarticle,Ihaveexaminedasampleofofficialprovincialcurriculum

documents from Manitoba (within the Western Canadian Protocol),

Nova Scotia (within the Atlantic Canada framework), and Ontario

(Canadas most populous province). Grades 1 to 10 encompass the

majorityof

compulsory

courses

offered

before

the

minimum

legal

schoolleavingage. IchosethreesubjectareasEnglishLanguageArts,

Health, and Social Studies because pilot study revealed that these

curriculahold themajority of explicit conflictrelated content. Clearly

othersubjects(andthecocurriculum)alsohave important implications

for citizenship in/for social conflict, but those implications are less

explicitlyvisible.

Data collectionbegan with an inclusive search for conflictrelated

words and phrases in the content and skill learning expectations and

teachingguidelinesintheselectedcurriculumdocuments. Withstudent

assistants, I extracted all identifiable expectations in these curricula

related

to

three

broad

approaches

to

conflict

derived

from

conflict

theory: peacekeeping (words such as violence, aggression, safety,

security), peacemaking (words such as communication, critical

reasoning,understandingandhandlingconflict,viewpoint,negotiation),

andpeacebuilding (wordssuchasequity,justice,bias,andattention to

socialdifferencessuchascultureandgender). Iaddedafourthcategory,

other citizenship concerns, to keep the analysis open to other explicit

citizenshiprelated content such as governance or rights and

responsibilities, not clearly captured by one of the preceding three

categories. Our goal was to investigate all identifiable elements of

citizenship education that were potentially relevant to understanding

and participating in social conflict. I examined these extracts in their


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discursive contexts, coded, and recoded thematic categories to best

reflecttheactualthemesthatbecamevisible(seebelow).

Iarrangedthecodedcollectionsofcurriculumexcerptstoreflectthe

approximatefrequencyofattentiontoeachthemerelativetotheothers,

across subject areas and provinces. However, this analysis did not

carefullymeasurethequantityofeachprovincialcurriculumsemphasis

onparticularthemes. Instead,thegoalwastouncoverthequalitiesand

implicationsofparticularinclusionsandexclusionsinthesecurricula. I

analyze the themespresentedmore rarely in theseofficial curricula in

themostdetailhere,tofocusthisanalysisontherangeofmeaningsand

possibilitiesembedded in thesecurricula. Incontrast, themost typical

elementsofthesecurriculaarepresentedwiththeleastdetail,assuming

theywillbemost familiar toreaders. Last,Iselecteda fewcurriculumexcerpts from each province and each subject area to represent the

thematiccharacterof therangeofcurricularexpectations (seeTables1

5). Thegoalwastopresentsufficientdetailtoallowreaderstoquestion

my interpretations, while reducing to a manageable size the data

extractedfromseveralhundredpagesofcurriculumdocuments.

Muchoftherhetoricaboutactiveparticipation,citizenengagement,

socialjustice,and critical thinking is found in thegeneral introductory

sections of these documents, more than in the specific substantive

content expectations. Critical thinking goals in particular were often

found inseparate listsofskills,disconnectedfromthecontenttowhich

theymight

be

applied.

Because

teachers,

tests,

and

textbooks

generally

attendtospecificsubjectmattermorethantosuchgeneralandmarginal

guidelines, this analysis emphasizes the substantive content

expectations.

TheEnglishLanguageArtscurriculumtakesonspecialsignificance

for citizenship educationbecause inmany school systems, pushedby

highstakesliteracytests,substantialtimeisallocatedtoit. Forexample,

NovaScotiasTime toLearnStrategyrecommends that ingrades46

teachersspendover30percentofclassroom timeonEnglish language

artsandover20percentonmathematics. Inconsequence,onlyabout4

percentoftimeremainsforhealtheducation,anothernearly9percent

forphysicaleducation,and less than8percent(110minutesperweek)

for each of science and social studies (Nova Scotia Department of


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18 KATHYBICKMORE

EducationandHumanServices,,2005). Classroomtimeisoftenlimited

for social studies, the traditionalhome for explicitpolitical citizenship

education and nationalism, and for the life skills strands of health

curricula,wheremostconflictresolutionlearningexpectationsarefound.

Withinaswellasamongsubjects,officiallymandated testsoftendirect

attention away from themost citizenshiprelevant aspects of curricula

(Harber, 2002). This time scarcity clearly limits teachers capacity to

implementcriticaldemocraticcitizenshipcurriculum.

Teachers, curriculum leaders, and resourcedevelopers have

substantial agency to reinterpret and shape official expectations in

implemented curriculum. Yet thediscourse in curriculumdocuments

generally reflects considerable assumed consensus among educators

who have had input in their design, and may also reflect ways ofthinkingcommonamongmanyteachers.

CONFLICTRELATED CITIZENSHIP DISCOURSE IN OFFICIAL

CURRICULA

Below, I introduce the conflict and citizenshiprelated themes that

emerged as prominent in the selected Canadian provincial curricula

(listed frommostcommonlyemphasized to leastprominent). Idiscuss

excerpts according to these thematic categories: harmonybuilding

elements, individual skillbuilding elements, and explicitly political,

international, and/or conflictualissueelements. Because theharmony

building

elements

are

prominent

among

all

three

sets

of

curricula,

I

presentthemtogether. Next,Icomparethethreeprovincesapproaches

to the latter set of themes (individual skill building and political/

international/conflictualissues).

Harmonybuilding:

1. Self: Individual contribution, responsibility, communication

andcooperation

2. Others: Appreciation of diverse heritages and viewpoints,

multiculturalism,nationalunity

Individualskillbuilding:

3.Conflict

resolution:

managing

disputes

and

avoiding

violence

4. Criticalreasoningandproblemsolvingprocesses


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Political,international,andsocialconflict:

5. Citizenparticipation,governanceandCanadianideals

6. Globalinterdependence:peace,humanrights,andecology

7. Social conflict issues: past or present conflicts and public

controversies

The most prominent themes in these curricula were individual

communicationandcooperation,appreciationfordiversity,andconflict

management/avoidance (themes 13). Althoughpure assimilationwas

not explicitly advocated, the overall message was often about not

makingwavesandgettingalong. Theconflictresolutioncontent(theme

3) nearly always focused on interpersonal disputes, and emphasized

dominantculturewaysof avoidingdisruption and restoringharmony.Therelativelyinfrequentattentiontointernationalinterdependenceand

global diversity (theme 6) also emphasized nonconfrontation and

harmony. Thus many elements of these curricula could marginalize

conflictanddissenters. This containmentofdisruptionwould tend to

protect the status quo, and thusbe antidemocratic in its citizenship

implications.

Citizen participation and governance, critical reasoning, global

interdependence, and social conflict issues (themes 47) were

considerably less visible in these curricula than the harmony themes.

Such conflictavoidantcurricula tend tobegenerallyuninterestingand

ineffectivefor

most

students.

Attention

in

classrooms

to

investigation

andopendiscussionof controversial social issues, in contrast,engages

teachersandstudents inapplyingdemocratic idealstothecomplexities

of real conflicts, thereby generating more knowledge and interests

(Hahn,1998;TorneyPurta,Lehmann,Oswald,&Schultz,2001). Allthe

curricula reviewed,primarily in social studies,didcreate some limited

andcautiousspaceforsuchconflictualcontenttherebyofferingsome

encouragementandprotectionforteacherswhodoaddressconflictsand

controversies in their implemented curricula (Bickmore, 2002). Thus

teachers are not prohibitedby these curricular requirements,but not

pervasively encouraged, to confront the kinds of social and political

conflictsthatwouldengagedemocraticcitizens.


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20 KATHYBICKMORE

CurriculumforHarmonyBuilding

Thecurricula reviewed inall three subjectareasplaced clearemphasis

onstudentsdevelopmentofskillsandinclinationsforcivilinterpersonal

communication and cooperation (seeTable 1). Pedagogicalguidelines

continually exhorted teachers to use studentcentred and experiential

teachingmethodssuchasdiscussionandgroupwork,perhapsbecause

such pedagogies remain anything but pervasive in practice (Sears,

Clarke, & Hughes, 1999). These themes were emphasized in similar

waysinalltheprovincescurriculainthethreesubjectareas.

Table1: CurriculumforHarmonyBuilding:AppreciatingSelfandOthers

MANITOBA

NOVA

SCOTIA

ONTARIO

ENGLISHLANGUAGE

ARTSgrade8(1996):

engageindialogueto

understandthefeelings

andviewpointsofothers

andcontributetogroup

harmony. Grade4:

identifysimilaritiesand

differencesbetween

personalexperiencesand

theexperiencesofpeople

fromvariouscultures

portrayedin

oral,

literary,

andmediatexts. Grade3:

showconsiderationfor

thosewhoseideas,

abilities,andlanguageuse

differfromourown.

PHYSICAL&HEALTH

EdnFrameworkgrade112

(2000)strandsincludeself

awareness/self

esteem/respectforothers

andsocialdevelopment/

appreciationofdiversity.

Grade9:examinethe

effectsofstereotyping

PHYSICAL&HEALTH

Edngrade79(1999):

practicefairplay,

includingwillingly

choosingavarietyof

partnersusingavarietyof

criteriaandvaluingthe

participationofbothmale

andfemalestudents.

Demonstrateacceptance

ofandappreciationfor

theirownandothers

sexualorientation,

and

awarenessofsocial

influencesthatcontribute

togenderstereotyping.

SOCIALSTUDIESgrade9

course,AtlanticCanadain

theGlobalCommunity

(1998):demonstratean

understandingofthe

natureofculture,ethnic,

andlinguisticgroupsin

AtlanticCanada,

mentioningespecially

francophones,aboriginals,

andAfroCanadians.

SOCIALSTUDIESgrade5:

demonstratean

understandingthatfor

everyrightthereisa

responsibility. Grade2:

demonstratean

understandingthat

Canadaisacountryof

manycultures[and]

identifythesignificant

featuresofvariousfamily

cultures(e.g.food,dress,

celebrations).In

grade

6:

identifythecontributions

ofAboriginalpeoplesto

thepoliticalandsociallife

ofCanada(e.g.inmusic,

art,politics,literatureand

science).


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MANITOBA NOVASCOTIA ONTARIO

basedonavarietyof

factors(e.g.gender,age,

race,roles,media

influences,bodytype,

sexualorientation,source

ofincome)andways

topromoteacceptanceof

selfandothers.

Respect for self and others and avoiding stereotypes were

emphasizedinallthreesetsofcurriculaacrossallreviewedsubjectareas.

In Social Studies, this rhetorical affirmation of diverse identities also

includedinvocations

of

national

unity,

recognition

of

the

contributions

of (essentialized) ethnocultural groups to Canada, and the Canadian

nessofourrightsandfreedoms. Exceptindirectlyinthediscourseabout

avoidingstereotypes,mostofthecurricularattentiontosocialdifference,

especially in Ontario and Nova Scotia, did not mention (in)equity.

Ethnocultural differences were far more consistently mentioned than

any other social difference, although especially in Manitoba, a few

curricular passages included additional kinds of diversity such as

gender, ability, and economic status, but without much concerted

attentiontoanyparticularaxisof(in)equity.

All three provinces emphasizedCanadian identity, represented as

ethnoculturally plural. Manitoba and especially Nova Scotia also

emphasizedregional identity. Ontariosrelative inattention toregional

identitypresumably reflects itsassumeddominance incentralCanada.

Ethnocultural diversity is represented somewhat differently in each

province. For example, Nova Scotia emphasized AfroCanadian

identities,ManitobaattendedmoretoAboriginalconcerns,andOntario

emphasized the polyglot community of immigrants. Manitobas

curriculumattendedtodiscriminationandsocialexclusioninrelationto

a wider range of social differences, including sexual orientation and

socialclass. Thuswithnotableexceptions,thisprevailingcontributions

approach tosocialdiversityappears tobeaimedmoreatharmonyand

conflictavoidancethanatrestructuringconflictualsocialrelationships.


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22 KATHYBICKMORE

Althoughsocialconflictistheassumedthreatthatseemstomotivate

this curricular attention to diversity, it rarelybreaks the surface into

explicit text. This kind of indirect, conflictavoidant, awarenesslevel

attention to diversity is unlikely to facilitate any movement toward

equity (Banks,1988;McCauley,2002). Tobeeffective,suchcurriculum

would require open dialogue and sustained, equitable, cooperative,

intergroupinteraction(TalOr,Boninger,&Gleicher,2002).

CurriculumforIndividualSkillBuilding

Ihavegrouped theremaining two thematicsetsofcurriculumexcerpts

bysubjectareaaswellasbyprovincetohighlightemergingdifferences

amongjurisdictions(HealthandEnglishLanguageArtsappearinTable

2,Social

Studies

in

Table

3).

For

example,

compared

to

Nova

Scotia,

ManitobaandOntariogavemoreexplicitattentiontoconflictresolution

inmultiplesubjectareas.Manitobasmainattentiontoconflictresolution

was inHealthandSocialStudiescurricula. Incomparison to theother

provinces curricula, the Manitoba curricula more explicitly linked

criticalreasoningtospecificlearningoutcomesinallthreesubjectareas.

AsinManitoba,Ontariocurriculumcalledforspecificconflictresolution

and critical reasoning outcomes, notably including social and political

conflicts inaddition tothe interpersonal. Atthesame time,similarities

among the three provinces curricula (especially in English Language

Arts) outweighed differences. What distinguishes these curricular

themes

is

an

individualistic,

skill

building

approach.

Table2: CurriculumforIndividualSkillbuilding:Physical&HealthEducationandEnglish

LanguageArts


PHYSICAL/HEALTHEDUCATION

Conflictresolution/

avoidingviolenceMB

FrameworkKS4(2000)

GeneralLearning

Outcomesincludesafety

(includingviolence/abuse

prevention)andpersonal/

socialmanagement

Conflictresolution/avoiding

violenceGrades79(1999):a

studentlistensattentively,

encouragesothers,disagrees

inanagreeableway,criticizes

ideasinsteadofthe

person Grade6:identify

andpracticeconflict

Conflictresolution/

avoidingviolenceThe

grade18(1998)strand

onPersonalSafetyand

InjuryPrevention

attendstovarioustypes

ofverbalandphysical

violence,forexample


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(includingconflictresolution). Grade3:

identifystrategies(e.g.say

noassertively,seekadult

helpconflictresolution

skills)toavoidbeing

bulliedindifferentcase

scenarios.Senior1(grade

9):applyconflict

resolutionstrategies(i.e.

mediationandnegotiation)

indifferentcasescenarios

forunderstandingdifferent

perspectivesandpointsof

view.

CriticalreasoningThis

frameworkincludesa

decisionmaking/problem

solvingstrand,e.g.grade

3:explorethestepsinthe

decisionmaking/problem

solvingprocess(e.g.define

topicorissue,explore

alternatives,checkand

considerhealthknowledge

andvalues,identify

possiblesolutions,decide,

evaluate).

resolutionstrategies

CriticalreasoningGrade79

guidelines:studentsshould

haveopportunitiesto

examinecriticallywaysin

whichlanguageandimages

areabletocreate,reinforce

andperpetuategender,

ability,culture,andother

formsofbiases,andapply

critical,analyticaland

creativethinkingtoidentify

andsolveproblems,making

decisionscollaboratively.Thefoundationforallgrades

(1998)frames

communication,problem

solving,andthecapacityto

criticallyinterpret

informationanddifferent

pointsofviewasessential

graduationlearnings.

grade7:identifypeopleandresourcesthatcan

supportsomeone

experiencing

harassment.HEALTH

grade910includesa

mainsectiononconflict

resolution,suchas

understandingthe

triggersofconflict.

ENGLISHLANGUAGEARTS

CriticalreasoningSenior

13curriculumoverview

(1996):Textsprovide

opportunitiesforthinking

andtalkingaboutawide

rangeoftopicsandideas,

includingthoserelatingto

society,ethics,andthe

meaningandsignificance

ofexperiences[Students

should]becomemore

conscious,discerning,

critical,and

appreciative


curriculumoverview

(1998)emphasizescritical

literacy,includinghelping

studentstorecognizehow

textconstructsones

understandingandworldviewof

race,gender,socialclass,age,

ethnicity,andabilityand

givingstudentsthemeansto

bringaboutthekindofsocial

justicethatademocracyseeksto

create.

Criticalreasoning

Grade18guidelines

(1997)advocate

brainstorming,

discussingstrategiesfor

problemsolving,

debatingissuesand

identifyingvaluesand

issues,detectingbias,

detectingimpliedas

wellasexplicit

meanings.Grade9

includesunitsonMedia


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24 KATHYBICKMORE


readersof

visual

mediaand

moreeffectivecreatorsof

visualproducts. Students

needtorecognizethatwhata

cameracapturesisa

constructionofreality,not

realityitself.

StudiesandLiteratureStudiesandReading:

explainhowreaders

differentbackgrounds

mightinfluencetheway

theyunderstandand

interpretatext.

Table3: CurriculumforIndividualSkillbuilding:SocialStudies/SocialSciences


Conflictresolution/

avoidingviolenceA

FrameworkGeneral

LearningOutcome,Powerandauthority,

includesjustice,rules

andlaws,conflictand

conflictresolution,and

warandpeace. Skillsfor

activedemocratic

citizenshiparetopervade

thecurriculum,including

cooperation,conflict

resolution,accepting

differences,taking

responsibility,negotiation,

buildingconsensus,

collaborativedecision

making,andlearningto

dealwithdissentand

disagreement. Grade58:

useavarietyofstrategies

toresolveconflicts

peacefullyandfairly[such

as]clarification,

negotiation,

compromiseGrade1:

giveexamplesofcauses

ofinterpersonalconflict

andsolutionsto

interpersonalconflictin

theschool

and

community.

Conflictresolution/

avoidingviolence

Foundation(1997)

identifiescommunication(includingdebating,

negotiating,establishing

consensus,clarifyingand

mediatingconflict)as

essentialskilloutcomes,

andsuggeststhatstudents

berequiredtotake

positionsonpastand

currentissues.

Criticalreasoning

Foundationguidelines:

teachersshould

encourageand

enable

studentstoquestiontheir

ownassumptionsandto

imagine,understand,and

appreciaterealitiesother

thantheirown. Oneof

sixconceptualstrands,

TimeandContinuity,

advocatescriticalanalysis

oftheeventsofthepast,

theireffectsontodayand

theirtieswiththefuture

valuesclarification,andan

examinationof

perspective

Conflictresolution/

avoidingviolenceGrade

16(1998)Canadaand

WorldConnectionsstrandidentifiesexamples

ofdivergentviewpoints

andconflictresolution.

HISTORYgrade7(1998)

unit,Conflictand

Change:demonstratean

understandingoftherivalries

betweentheFrenchand

EnglishinNorthAmerica

andEurope(e.g.between

theHudsonsBay

CompanyandtheNorth

WestCompany,[and]

betweenAboriginal

allies)and

demonstratean

understandingofthe

natureofchangeand

conflict,identifytypesof

conflict(e.g.war,rebellion,

strike,protest)andpresent

strategiesforconflict

resolution. CIVICS

grade10(1998):

demonstrateanabilityto

anticipateconflictingcivic

purposes,overcomepersonal

bias,

and

suspend

judgment

indealingwithissuesofcivic


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CriticalreasoningSkills

formanagingideasand

informationandCritical

andcreativethinking

skillsalsoaretopervade

thiscurriculum. Grade5

6:comparediverse

perspectivesinavarietyof

informationsources.

Grade7,compare

differingviewpoints

regardingglobalissues

[and]analyzeprejudice,

racism,stereotyping,

or

other

formsofbiasinthemediaand

otherinformationsources.

concernandanalyzeapproachestodecision

makingandconflict

resolutionthataffecttheir

ownlives.


GeographyofCanada

course:analysethefactors

thatcausechange,and

forecasttheeffectsof

changeintherelationships

betweentheearthsnatural

andhumansystems[to

carryout]problemsolvingandplanning.

All the curricula reviewed presented reasoning skills as essential

such as informationprocessing,decisionmaking, interpretingmultiple

sources, and recognizingbias. Interpersonal conflict resolution skill

building was nearly as common. However, these expectations were

usuallylistedseparatelyfromwhatmanyteachersunderstandasthereal

curriculum: subjectmatter content. The curriculamentioned abstract

conceptsofsocialjusticeandbias,butusuallynotattachedtoparticular

instances, causes, or ramifications. These curricula presented both

critical thinkingandconflictresolutionprimarilyas technicalskillsandeven as attitudes, disconnected from any particular substantive topic,

and from dissent, diverse approaches to conflict, or engagement in

probingthecausesoreffectsofsocialconflict. Yetconflictandcritique

are not generic: each instance acquires distinctmeanings in cultural,

historical, and social context (Lederach, 1995; Ross, 1993). Although

individual skills andwillingness to confront conflict constructively are

necessary for the dialogic and decisionmaking aspects of democratic

citizenship in pluralistic contexts, they are likely not sufficient until

applied to practice in relation to specific instances (Avery, Sullivan,

&Wood,1997;Case&Wright,1997). Clearlyteacherswiththecapacity

andinclination

to

do

so

could

plan

lessons

to

achieve

the

above

curricular expectations by delving into multiple perspectives on


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26 KATHYBICKMORE

contestedquestions and issues,butmost of these curriculawouldnot

requirethemtodoso.

None of the English Language Arts curricula explicitly taught

peacemaking, although they emphasized critical reasoning skills that

underlie conflictmanagement. This lack ofdirect attention to conflict

and resolution in language arts curricula represents a missed

opportunity, because both nonfiction and fiction often present

characters points of view about conflicts. Reading and writing

curriculum could provide examples for thoughtful discussion,

perspective taking, and other conflict learning. Nothing in these

curricular expectations would prevent teachers from facilitating such

learningopportunities,butthereislittletodirectlyencouragethemtodo

so.The reviewedHealthandSocialStudiescurriculadirected teachers

to teach interpersonalskillsandprocesses forhandlingconflictsuchas

listening, negotiation, and peer mediation. Especially in Health, the

curricula emphasized avoidance, settlement, and individual

responsibility for preventing violence. All three life skills curricula

emphasized individualstrategies foravoidanceanddisputesettlement,

rather than comprehension or critique of the sources of destructive

conflict and violence in schools, communities, and the world. The

implication,especiallyvisibleintheManitobacurriculum,thatstudents

shoulduseinterpersonalskillstoavoidbullyingandabusivesituations,

placesheavy

responsibility

on

the

individual

victim.

This

diverts

attention from the sources of social power forbullying, such as inter

group and genderbased prejudice, and the factors exacerbating

destructivestatuscompetition inschools,suchascompetitivetestingor

privilegingstudentingroupssuchassportselites(Aronson,2000).

The Social Studies curricula called for amix of individual conflict

management skills similar to those in Health, and offered variable

attention to concepts for understanding sociallevel conflicts including

injustice. Themain implication seems tobe that conflict isanegative:

This confuses the underlying causeswith the symptoms of aggressive

behaviour. NovaScotiasSocialStudies curriculumemphasized safely

abstractconstructsofworldviewandmultipleperspectives, incontrast

to Ontarios and Manitobas more explicit attention to intentional,


15/28


constructive confrontation of conflict (such as strikes, rebellions,

protests)thatcouldresultinpositivesocialchange. AtleastinOntario,

theexpectationtoteachconflictresolutionskillsandprocessesinHealth

is a relatively recent change in the official curriculum. The Health

curricula reviewed, more than Social Studies, emphasized quick

settlementoravoidanceofdisruptionanddisconnectedconflictfromits

cultural and social meanings, social structural causes, and potential

positiveoutcomes. Atworst,theyseemedimplicitlytolegitimateuseof

force by the powerful, while delegitimating disruption by the less

powerful.

Interpersonal conflict resolution and critical thinking learning

expectationshavebeenadoptedrapidlyandwidelyinmanymainstream

academic curricula, including those reviewedhere. However, someofthesegoalsandmaterials,ascurrentlyarticulated,seemtobuildonand

reinforce much older, dominant cultural assumptions that implicitly

locate problems in certain uncivilized individuals rather than in the

strugglesfordemocraticsocialrelations. Thismaycontributetoakind

ofsocialcohesion,butnottodemocraticcohesion. Clearlythesolutionis

nottoremovetheimportantopportunitytodevelopcriticalthinkingand

conflictresolutioncapacities inschool,buttoreattachtheseskillstothe

concepts, instances, and social challenges that give them meaning in

pluralisticdemocraticlife.

CurriculumforUnderstandingPolitical,International,andSocialConflict

Thecurriculumexcerptsreviewedbelow(HealthandEnglishLanguage

Arts in Table 4, Social Studies in Table 5) did address directly some

political, international, and socialproblems such asbias, stereotyping,

war, and human rights violations. At the same time, even these few

expectations rarely required teachers or students to address either

specific instances or the underlying foundations of such problems.

Becausemost citizens (includingmost teachers) explicit intercultural,

international, and political knowledge is minimal, a lack of specific

contentexamplesinthecurriculumcouldvirtuallyguaranteethatthese

specificinstancesofsocialconflict,andtheircauses,oftenwouldnotbe

addressed.


16/28

28 KATHYBICKMORE

In the curricula reviewed, only Social Studies taught explicit

citizenship,andespecially civics (how thegovernmentworks). Where

the curricula did interrogate and problematize intersections among

governanceornationalidentityandsocialdiversity,injustice,andsocial

conflict, this interrogation created opportunities for teachers and

studentstopractiseconstructiveconfrontationoftheconflictsinherentto

democracy. Classrooms,comparedtotheadultpoliticalworldreflected

in thenews,areusuallyrelativelysafecontexts inwhichguidanceand

feedbackcouldfacilitateeffectivelearningfromsuchpractice.

These curricula seemed to advocate social cohesionmore through

grand intentions than through close encounters with uncomfortable

knowledge. Tobefair,someofthisabstractionresultsfromthisstudys

levelofanalysis. Broadprovinciallevelcurriculumguidelines,designedto remain in place for a number of years, cannot feasibly address too

manyspecifics(however,onewondersfromwhatsourcessuchspecifics

would ever emerge in practice). There is no reason to assume that

exhorting students to respect abstract human and environmental

diversityandinterdependencewouldhaveappreciableeffect,inrelation

to the specific identities, uncertainties, and traumas inherent in deep

socialconflict. Thusitisahopefulsignthatthesecurriculadidincludea

few potentially interesting opportunities to actually engage in

discomfortingdialogueaboutdifficultdemocraticquestions.

Table4: CurriculumforPolitical,International,andSocialConflict:Physical&HealthEducation

andEnglishLanguageArts


PHYSICAL/HEALTHEDUCATION

Globalinterdependence

Foundationgrade112(1998)

overviewincludesaskey

principlescitizenshipandself

reflectionandconsciousness

thatpreservehumanrightsand

thedevelopmentofsupportive

andsustainableenvironments

forallcitizens. Curriculum

expectations

(1999):

to

assess

cultural,economic,and


17/28



environmentalinterdependenceinlocalandglobalcontexts.

Grade6:identifywaysin

whichcommunitiesand

countriescooperatetoprotect

andmaintainenvironmental

health.

SocialconflictIntroduction

encouragesuseofpotentially

controversialresources,and

providesstrategiesforteachers

todefendtheiruseofsuch

resourcesifcommunity

membersraiseobjections:giventhediversenatureand

maturityofstudents,itis

importanttoconfrontimportant

issuesandbringthemintothe

openfordiscussion.

ENGLISHLANGUAGEARTS


Grade18(1997)guiding

principle: toequip

studentswiththe

knowledgeandskillthat

willhelpthemcompeteina

globaleconomyandallow

themtoleadlivesof

integrityandsatisfaction,

bothascitizensand

individuals.

Table5: CurriculumforPolitical,International,andSocialConflict:SocialStudies/SocialSciences


Canadian

citizenship/idealsThe

FrameworkofOutcomes

gradeK8(2003)describes

citizenshipasacore

concept,includingways

individualsandgroups

Canadian

citizenship/ideals

Foundations(1998)grade

112emphasizes

democraticvaluessuchas

equality,dignity,justice,

freedom,civilrightsand

Canadian

citizenship/ideals

CanadaandWorld

Connections(1998),grade

5:howfederalandprovincial

governmentsensureunity

throughgovernance


18/28

30 KATHYBICKMORE


influencethemakingoflaws,redresspastand

presentinjustices(e.g.

resourceextractionfrom

Aboriginalcommunities),

andhandleconflicts(e.g.

globaldisparitiesinwealth

&humanrights). This

activedemocratic

citizenshipinCanada

approachrecognizes

Canadasbilingualand

multiculturalnature

respectforhumanrights

anddemocraticidealsandprinciples,abilitytowork

throughconflictsand

contradictionsthatcan

ariseamongcitizens,

commitmenttofreedom,

equality,andsocial

justice ForthePower

andauthoritygeneral

learningoutcome,grade5:

examinetheauthorization

ofsomeindividualor

groupwithinasocietyto

makebindingdecisions

[whichmay]

vary

from

one

societytoanother. Grade

9CANADIANSTUDIES:

conflictbetween

increasingneedsand

wantsandlimited

resourcesisafundamental

economicproblemwhich

necessitatesadecision

makingsystem. In

Canada,thepolitical

systemismarkedby

federalprovincial

tensions.


responsibilities,anduniversalhumanrights.

Curriculumoutcomes

emphasizethatstudents

shouldtakeage

appropriateactionsto

demonstratetheir

responsibilitiesas

citizens. Twoof6key

stagecurriculum

outcomesarecitizenship

andpowerand

governance:identify,

analyze,andcompare

relationsofpowerandauthority,understandhow

theCanadianlegalsystem

establishesorderand

managesconflict,and

howgroups,institutions,

andmediainfluence

peopleandsociety.Grade

9course,AtlanticCanada

intheGlobalCommunity:

explainhowAtlantic

Canadiansshapepolitical

culturebyexercising

powerandinfluencing

politicaldecisions.


Introductionencourages

studentcentredteaching:

stimulatingideas,social

issues,andthemesto

examineissues,respond

criticallyandcreatively,

andmakeinformed

decisionsasindividuals

andascitizensofCanada

andofanincreasingly

interdependentworld.

Keystage

outcomes

includecultureand

mechanisms. CIVICSgrade10(1998):demonstratean

understandingofthe

reasonsfordemocratic

decisionmaking[and]

comparecontrastingviewsof

whatitmeanstobea

citizen. Amaincourse

strandisActive

Citizenship:show

understandingofa

citizensroleinrespondingto

nondemocraticorganizations

(e.g.supremacistandracist

organizations)[and

to]

compareandevaluatethe

impactofvariousnonviolent

citizenparticipation.


HeritageandCitizenship

(1998)grade6:identify

someoftheconsequencesof

AboriginalandEuropean

interactions(e.g.economic

impactofthefurtradeon

Aboriginalpeoples,

transmissionofEuropean

diseasesto

Aboriginal

peoples). GEOGRAPHY7

8(1998):interdependent

relationshipsoftrade,and

protectingtheenvironment

asaresponsibilityof

citizenship.

CANADIAN/WORLD

STUDIESgrade10has

studentsexplainthe

significanceofCanadas

contributiontotheforcesof

globalizationandtheUnited

Nations(e.g.Universal

Declaration

of

Human

Rights,treatyonlandmines,


19/28



FrameworkGeneralLearningOutcomes

includeIdentity,culture,

andcommunityand

Globalinterdependence.

Grade7SpaceshipEarth

coursespecificoutcomes:

giveexamplesofglobal

cooperationtosolveconflicts

ordisasters,identifyvarious

internationalorganizations

anddescribetheirrolein

protectingorenhancing

globalqualityoflife,and

identifyuniversalhumanrightsandexplaintheir

importance.Grade8,

Peoplethroughthe

Ages: howtheFirst

World,SecondWorld,and

ThirdWorlddeveloped

andhowlifecomparesand

contrastsintheseworlds

andhowmaytheThird

WorldbeaffectedbytheFirst

World. Grade6,Lifein

CanadasPast:what

impactdidthearrivalof

[variouswaves

of

British]

settlershaveonthelivesof

FrenchandNativepeople

alreadylivinginthearea.

Grade9CANADIAN

STUDIES:whatroledoes

Canadaplayinkeepingpeace

intheworld?

SocialconflictSpecific

skilloutcomesinthis

Frameworkinclude(grade

58),recognizebias[and]

discriminationand

proposesolutions.

Grade

6unit,WesternCanada:

diversityandinterdependence,

includinghumanrights,

andplanningand

evaluatingactionsfor

peaceandsustainability.

Grade9:explainthe

conceptofmarketat

multiplelevels,describe

andanalysehow

ecosystemsarecreated,

influenced,andsustained,

andexplainandanalyse

howAtlanticCanadians

aremembersoftheglobalcommunity[and]needto

becomecontributing

membersoftheglobal

community.

SocialconflictCurriculum

outcomesassertthatsocial

andculturalgroupshave

differentperspectiveson

socialissues,andmention

humanrightsand

discrimination. Grade9:

demonstratean

understandingof

the

issuesandevents

surroundingcrosscultural

understandinginthelocal,

regional,andgloballevels

includingprejudice,

discrimination,social

injustice,ethnocentrism,

racism,multiculturalism,and

antiracism.

childrensrights). The

grade9course,Geography

ofCanada,Global

Connectionsstrand:

Sincetheworlds

economiesarebecoming

increasingly

interconnected,andthe

flowofpeople,products,

money,andideasaround

theworldis

accelerating.

SocialconflictHeritage

andCitizenship,grade6:identifycurrentconcernsof

Aboriginalpeoples(e.g.self

government,landclaims).

HISTORY(1998),grade7

ConflictandChange

unit:historicalinstancesof

conflictsuchasthe

rebellionsof1837inUpper

andLowerCanada.

Studentsaretoanalyze

anddescribeconflicting

pointsofviewaboutan

historicalevent(e.g.the

expulsionof

the

Acadians),

givingexamplesoffactand

opinion[andto]describethe

impactoftheTreatyofParis

andtheQuebecActfromboth

theEnglishandtheFrench

pointsofview. Grade8:

showunderstandingof

thegrowthand

developmentoftheWest

fromthepointsofviewof

theCanadiangovernment,

Aboriginalpeoples,Metis,

andnewimmigrants;

showunderstanding

of

majordevelopmentsthat


20/28

32 KATHYBICKMORE


therelocationofNativePeopleontoreserves,and

howislifeina

contemporaryreserve

similartoanddifferent

fromlifeonareservein

thepast.Grade7,

SpaceshipEarth:what

differentconflictsmay

ariseasaresultof

interactionofvarious

culturalgroups?What

couldhelptopreventor

counteracttheseconflicts?

Coreconcepts:Canadian

citizenshipforthefuture

includingredressingpast

andpresentinjusticesand

eliminatinginequalities;

Citizenshipintheglobal

contextincludinghelp

reducethedisparitiesand

humanrightsviolationsthat

havebecomeacommon

meansofaddressing

internalandinternational

disputes, and

Environmental

citizenship.Grade

9:

definecolonialism,

imperialism,and

nationalism.

affectedtheworking

conditionsofCanadian

workers(e.g.developmentof

unions,WinnipegGeneral

Strike),andtoidentify

majordevelopments(e.g.

thesuffragemovement)

andpersonalities(e.g.

NellieMcClung)inthe

womensrightsmovement,

anddemonstratean

understandingofthe

changingroleofwomenin

Canadiansociety.Grade10:

explainhow

and

why

social

supportprograms(e.g.old

agepensions,unemployment

insurance,medicare)were

designed,andassesstheir

effectivenessinmeetingthe

needsofvarioussegmentsof

society, andexplainhow

andwhytheCanadian

governmentrestricted

certainrightsand

freedomsinwartime,and

describetheimpactof

theserestrictionsonthe

generalpopulation

and

on

variousgroupswithinthe

Canadianpopulation.

The above curricula, specially in Ontario and Manitoba, did

emphasize theresponsibilityofcitizens torecognizesome fundamental

sources of social conflict and injustice, and to participate actively in

nonviolentcitizenactioninresponsetosuchproblems. Interconnection

andinterdependencewerementionedagreatdealinanabstractfashion,

butpowerimbalance,injustice,orspecificconflictswerementionedvery

little. The languageofglobalperspective andhuman rightshadbeen

adopted,but

these

provincial

expectations

would

not

require

teachers

to

allocatemuch time to examine specific internationalpeople,places, or


21/28


problems. Therewasremarkably little internationalcontentmentioned

in these curricula (there was more in some grade 11 and 12 social

sciences,butgenerallyfewerstudentsparticipate insuchcourses). The

pitfalls of dependence for marginalized regions were essentially

unmentioned. As with the interpersonal appreciation of diversity

discussed earlier, these curricula presented international diversity and

humanrightsprimarilyasuncontestedideals,disconnectedfromspecific

instances.

Exceptionstothesecurriculasgeneralpatternofconflictavoidance

provideimportantillustrationsofhowattentiontoconflictcouldchange

the citizenship expectations embedded in curriculum. For example,

globallevelinterdependenceandcitizenshipexpectationswereincluded

notonly inSocialStudies,butalso inPhysicalandHealthEducation inNovaScotiaandinEnglishLanguageArtsinOntario(seeTable4). The

SocialStudiescurriculum(Table5),especiallyinManitoba,didconfront

some difficult topics, grounding explicit concern for global and local

equity andjustice in specific examples. Notable learning expectations

required examination of contemporary First World (including

mainstreamCanadian) patterns ofbehaviour that impact on injustices

and challenges endured currently by Third World and Canadian

Aboriginalpeoples.

Nova Scotias mention of citizens divergent worldviews and

students participation in debating controversial issues was limited

primarilyto

vague

introductory

statements.

However,

Nova

Scotia

required an entire grade9 course on individuallocalglobal linkages,

which could cover conflictual issues in more detail. Manitobas and

Ontarios Social Sciences curricula included significant attention to

critical reflection on questions of global andnational injustice. Mixed

withunabashedly capitalist and status quo intentions aroundnational

unity and competing in the global economywere spaces for applying

principlesofjusticeandactivecitizenshiptospecificpoliticalissuessuch

as landmines,Aboriginal landclaims,workersrights,womensrights,

and EnglishFrench colonial rivalries in Canadain historical and

contemporarysettings.

The English LanguageArts curriculamade essentially no specific

mention of controversy or social conflicts. Health education similarly


22/28

34 KATHYBICKMORE

avoidedvirtuallyallmentionofsocialconflictorcontroversy,exceptfor

the mention in Nova Scotias introduction that the use of certain

curricular resources mightbe contested, yet worth the risk. Even in

Social Studies, to different degrees in the different provinces,

discrimination against specificoutgroupswas framedmost frequently

aspast,asifsuchproblemswerelargelysolved.

Canadianidentitywaspresentedinaverypositivelightinallthree

setsofcurricula: provincialauthorityovercurriculumdoesnotseemto

preventthesecurriculafromreinforcingremarkablysimilarandunified

approachestonational identity. Sometimespastordistant instancesof

social conflict and injustice were juxtaposed with current Canadian

values of equality, rights, and participation. All the reviewed Social

Studies curricula appeared to have been influenced by internationalcitizenship education practice, in particular United States guidelines

emphasizing study of multiple perspectives organized around key

concepts(especiallyNationalCouncilfortheSocialStudies,1994). Like

national identity, international linkages and global citizenship

responsibilitywerepresentedinsimilarwaysinallthreeprovinces.

However, some interesting differences occurred among these

provincial curricula in how they applied democratic, justice, and

interdependence concepts to specific instances of social conflicts and

political controversies. Controversy was rarely encouraged in these

curricula,but it was not totally ignored, especially in Social Studies.

OntariosSocial

Sciences

curriculum

included

substantial

attention

to

pastintergroupconflictsandinjustices. InManitoba,moreremarkably,

anumberofcurrentsocialconflictsandjusticeissueswerenamed,thus

more likely tobe included in teaching resources and actually covered.

Clearlyateachercouldpresentpastconflictsinwaysthatwouldinform

comparisonandopendiscussionoftodaysconflicts,buttherewereonly

veryrareexplicitrequirementsheretodoso.

CONCLUSION

Thisresearchhaspointedoutmanypotentialandpartialopportunities

for democratic social cohesion education in three sets of official

provincial curriculum guidelines. The discursive assumption that

diverse students are becoming citizens with agency in relation to


23/28


unresolved social conflicts was an evident subtext throughout these

curricula. Theydidprovidesomerationale,motivation,andsafetynet

for teachers who would choose to offer their students guided

opportunities to practise constructively addressing risky topics and

perspectives. Despitetypicalpatternsofdenialandfearofcontroversy,

asignificantminorityofteachersdoeffectivelyaddressthechallengesof

democraticsocialcohesionandcitizendevelopmentbyengagingdiverse

students inpluralistic,constructivemanagementofconflict(Hess,2002;

McCully,ODoherty,& Smyth, 1999;Wilson,Haas,Laughlin,& Sunal

2002;Worthington,1985). Atthesametime,thesecurriculacarriedamix

of contradictory expectations for citizenship: everything from being

goodbybeing compliant toanexhortation thatyoung individualscan

and should change the world. There was consequently considerablespaceforteachers,individuallyandcollectively,tousethesecurriculain

relatively conservative or relatively transformative ways. Teachers

agency to pick up on these spaces of possibility is constrained and

shapedbysomeofthesamediscursivepatternsthathaveshapedthese

curriculumguidelines.

Likeanyofficial citizenshipeducation, the curricula reviewedhere

reflect the intersections and contradictions among the voices of the

various powerful and lesspowerful stakeholders who negotiate in

relation tonationalandregional identityandsocialcohesion througha

federalist state. Examination of curriculum discourse in these three

Canadianjurisdictions

suggests

that,

despite

the

democratic

language

withwhichmanyof thedocumentsare introduced, thesegovernments

arebynomeansunambiguouslycommitted toactive,critical, inclusive

citizen agency in relation to current conflicts. At the same time, the

tendency to avoid conflict and discourage potentially educative

disruption was not absolute. Each provincial curriculum reviewed

above did present various kinds of subject matter and skillbuilding

expectationsthatcouldopenimportantspacesforpluralisticdemocratic

engagement.

Therewere few instances in thecurricula reviewedhereofexplicit

attentiontocontrastingviewpoints inspecificsocialconflicts,especially

to gendered social relations or transnational socialstructural factors.

Substantive content about concerns ofdiversehuman communities,or


24/28

36 KATHYBICKMORE

specificequity issues,wasquiterare in thesecurriculum requirements.

Theassumptionembedded inthisdiscourseseemedtobe that learning

about us and how we should act is prerequisite to more complicated

political engagement social cohesion before conscientization.

Citizenshipeducation thatbeginsbymarginalizingconflictingvoices is

unlikelytoprovideasolidfoundationformorepluralisticdemocracy.

The conflictrelated learning opportunities and expectations

embeddedinthesecurriculumdiscoursesoffergroundsforoptimismas

wellasconcern. Therewassubstantialattentiontocitizenshipeducation

forandaboutconflictinthesecurricula. Allthreesetsofcurriculainall

three subject areas attended to conflictrelated skills such as

interpersonal communication and getting along with others. At the

same time,muchof this curriculumdiscourse embodiedunchallengeddominant discursive perspectives, and could leave little space for

actually practising engagement in unfinished democratic efforts. To

differentdegreesinthevarioussubjectareasandprovincialsystems,the

rhetoric of these curricula emphasized social harmony values and

individual skills such as communication, generic critical thinking,

cooperation, and appreciation of diversity. Thus all three sets of

curricula appeared to emphasize assimilation more than democratic

engagement implicit social control and homogenization through

inculcation of unproblematized values, silencing ormarginalization of

dissenting viewpoints. This emphasis is unlikely to provide a secure

foundationfor

democratic

social

cohesion

because

it

provides

little

supportfordevelopmentofcreative,autonomousdissentingviewpoints,

and littlepracticewithmanagingactualpublic issuesor social conflict

challenges.

Education inand forconflictmanagement isacrucial ingredientof

democracy. Democraticprocessesofopendialogueanddeliberation,as

wellassubstantivedemocraticequity,aredefinedby their inclusionof

conflictingvoices andperspectives. It is aparadoxofdemocracy and

humanrightsthatadegreeofcoercion(forexample,nondiscrimination

laws and compulsory education) may contribute to democratic self

determination. Governmentcurriculumrequirementscancontribute to

democracyanddemocratizationby insisting thatevery student receive

an opportunity to engage in guided experience and practice with


25/28


constructive deliberation on social and political conflicts to develop

skills,agency,andwellinformedviewpointsasdemocraticcitizens. To

contribute to citizenship education for democratic agency, explicit

curriculumcanandmustdelve into theunsafebutrealworldofsocial

and political conflicts and injustices that defy simple negotiated

settlement, including the roots and human costs of current local and

globalinjustices.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ithankthebrilliantstudentswhoassistedwiththisprojectatvarioustimesover

thelastfewyears: RuthAmanuel,OlimpiaBoido,ChristineGiese,MonaGhali,

Angela MacDonald,John Myers, and Miriam Zachariah. In addition, many

thanks to the CJE Guest Editors and anonymous reviewers for invaluable

feedback.

NOTES

This paper draws from my larger SSHRCfunded study, Safe and Inclusive

Schools(Bickmore2004a),thatcomparesimplicitandexplicitcurricula,policies,

andprogramsforpeacekeeping(security),peacemaking(conflictresolution),and

peacebuilding (redressing social and cultural injusticesunderlyingdestructive

conflicts)inthreeurbanCanadianschooldistricts.

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Documents

CJE-09 Bickmore Aug20,06