Closing Achievement Gaps: Roles and Tasks of Elementary School Counselorseaop.ucsd.edu/198/achievement-gap/Closing Achievem… · · 2014-01-16Closing Achievement Gaps: Roles and

Closing Achievement Gaps: Roles and Tasks of Elementary School CounselorsAuthor(s): By Jerry Trusty, Elizabeth A. Mellin, and James T. HerbertSource: The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 108, No. 5 (May 2008), pp. 407-421Published by: The University of Chicago PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/589470 .

Accessed: 10/12/2013 12:31

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

.

The University of Chicago Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to TheElementary School Journal.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 98.176.112.184 on Tue, 10 Dec 2013 12:31:52 PMAll use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ucpress

http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/589470?origin=JSTOR-pdf

http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp


Closing AchievementGaps: Roles and Tasksof Elementary SchoolCounselors

Jerry TrustyElizabeth A. MellinJames T. HerbertThe Pennsylvania State University

Abstract

Achievement gaps among racial-ethnic and so-cioeconomic status groups are an enduring, per-vasive, and multifaceted phenomenon. There-fore, efforts aimed at understanding andaddressing these gaps must be developmentallyand environmentally broad, involving numer-ous school counselor roles and tasks, includingleadership, advocacy, collaboration, and strate-gic interventions. In this article, we first docu-ment achievement gap trends and then providea framework for understanding and sequencingoutcomes that quantify student achievementgaps. Finally, we present research that identifiescritical variables influencing achievement gapsand important school counselor roles and tasksaimed at closing these gaps. The article focuseson outcomes across the developmental spec-trum from elementary school through postsec-ondary education.

Useful sources of data for documentingachievement gaps and educational trendsare publications from the National Centerfor Education Statistics (NCES). Wirt et al.(2002) reported data that revealed somenarrowing of the reading achievement gapbetween African American and white stu-dents from 1971 to 1999. A gap, however,remains. In 2003 (Wirt et al., 2005) AsianAmerican and white fourth and eighthgraders scored higher in reading than theirAfrican American, Latino, and NativeAmerican counterparts. A reading scoregap also exists among socioeconomic status(SES) groups. In mathematics, Wirt et al.(2002, 2005) reported similar racial-ethnicand SES achievement gaps for fourth andeighth graders. In addition, school environ-ment factors such as disruptions by stu-dents, fighting, and lack of school safety are

The Elementary School JournalVolume 108, Number 5© 2008 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.0013-5984/2008/10805-0005$10.00



more likely to be reported as problems forstudents from minority groups than forwhite students.

Achievement gaps are also evident inthe percentages of young people who com-plete high school or its equivalent. Wirt etal. (2005) reported percentages of highschool completers, ages 25 to 29, for threeracial-ethnic groups. In 1973, 84% ofwhites, 64% of African Americans, and 52%of Latinos completed high school. In 1993,91% of whites, 83% of African Americans,and 61% of Latinos completed high school.The percentages of completers in 2003 were94% for whites, 89% for African Americans,and 62% for Latinos. Although it is evidentthat the high school completion gap hasclosed somewhat between whites and Afri-can Americans, a wide gap remains be-tween Latinos and whites. Immigration isone challenge related to high school com-pletion for Latinos. That is, dropout ratesare higher for recent Latino immigrantsthan for other Latinos (National Center forEducation Statistics, 2002).

Achievement gaps naturally follow intopostsecondary educational attainment.Wirt et al. (2005) reported the percentagesof young people ages 25 to 29 with bache-lor’s degrees. In 1973, 21% of whites, 8% ofAfrican Americans, and 6% of Latinos hadbachelor’s degrees. In 1993 the percentageswere 27% for whites, 13% for AfricanAmericans, and 8% for Latinos. In 2003,34% of whites, 18% of African Americans,and 10% of Latinos had bachelor’s degrees.These gaps have narrowed slightly, and,although results are encouraging over timefor all three groups, significant discrepan-cies remain.

Education translates into economics,and earnings differences exist based on ed-ucational attainment. Wirt et al. (2005) re-ported data on earning differences for full-time workers ages 25 to 34. In 1977, AfricanAmericans with at least a bachelor’s degreeearned 39% more than African Americanswith a high school diploma only. In 2003,this earnings difference had increased to

60%. Latinos with a bachelor’s in 1977earned 24% more than Latinos with a highschool education only; this percentage in-creased to 57% in 2003. For whites, the per-centages for earnings were 20% in 1977 and49% in 2003. These data reveal a trend to-ward greater economic rewards for post-secondary educational attainment, regard-less of racial-ethnic group. That is, intoday’s economy, postsecondary educationhas a greater economic benefit as comparedto years past, and higher levels of educa-tion dilute employment and earnings gapsbetween racial-ethnic groups.

The Proximal-Distal OutcomeFrameworkIn the preceding section, we presented dataon numerous important educationalachievement outcomes. These outcomescover a broad developmental spectrum(childhood through adulthood) and vary innature (e.g., test scores, postsecondary at-tainment). Educational achievement is anexpansive area, and thus a framework forconceptualizing achievement outcomes isuseful. One framework (e.g., Brown &Trusty, 2005b; Ryan & Adams, 1995) orga-nizes achievement in terms of proximal anddistal outcomes. Proximal outcomes aremore immediate and more directly con-nected to educational interventions or prac-tices. Distal outcomes are more long-term,less directly influenced by specific inter-ventions or practices, and more likely influ-enced by a broad array of phenomena. Forexample, if a counselor delivers a class-room guidance unit on study skills and or-ganizational skills for fourth graders, themost proximal outcome is the degree towhich students met the learning objectivesof the unit by demonstrating gains in theskills targeted by the intervention. Aslightly less proximal outcome, yet an im-portant one, is students’ immediate perfor-mance in their classes. A more distal out-come is students’ performance on state-mandated basic skills tests in elementary

408 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL

MAY 2008



school. Study skills and achievement inmiddle school, effective organization andplanning for high school, completion of anacademically demanding curriculum inhigh school, graduation from high school,and graduation from college are progres-sively more distal outcomes.

To better understand the proximal-distal outcome framework, five essentialcharacteristics are identified:

1. The proximal-distal framework repre-sents a continuum and not discrete prox-imal and distal categories. Achieve-ment outcomes fall logically along acontinuum ranging from more prox-imal to more distal, as in the study-skills example in the preceding sec-tion. Temporal proximity is a majorconsideration, but the nature of out-come variables is also important. Forexample, study skills in middleschool are more proximal to studyskills in elementary school than basicskills test scores in middle school areto study skills in elementary school.

2. The proximal-distal framework can beused to express a logical causal sequence.For elementary school counselorsand other educators to demonstrateaccountability, it is important thatcounseling activities (e.g., interven-tions, school counseling programcomponents) be causally linked tostudent achievement (Brown &Trusty, 2005b). The proximal-distalcontinuum allows counselors andothers to form specific causal se-quences connected to school counsel-ing efforts. Whereas activities in thecareer and academic domains haveclearer and more proximal connec-tions to achievement outcomes, ac-tivities targeting the personal-socialdomain also have causal linkages toachievement outcomes (see theAmerican School Counselor Associa-tion national model [ASCA, 2003]regarding developmental domains

targeted by comprehensive schoolcounseling programs).

3. It is more tenable to link interventionsand practices to proximal outcomes ascompared to more distal ones. We mayseem to be stating the obvious whenwe note that links to more proximaloutcomes are more tenable than linksto more distal outcomes. Question-able leaps to more distal outcomes,however, are too common in schools.The current outcome of focus formost school administrators is scoreson basic skills tests. These scores areused in many states to evaluate, re-ward, and penalize schools, and it isnatural that they have received muchattention from educators. Heavy fo-cus on these test scores, however, canlead school counselors and others tolose sight of important proximal out-comes.

4. The proximal-distal framework is devel-opmental and hierarchical. An exclu-sive focus on one outcome (e.g., basicskills test scores) ignores importantdistal outcomes such as preparationfor and completion of postsecondaryeducation. The developmental con-text of educational achievement is il-luminated in the proximal-distalframework. Achievement is largelyhierarchical across the developmen-tal spectrum. That is, one level ofachievement must be met before thesubsequent level is pursued. The de-velopmental and hierarchical natureof achievement underscores thepoint that all outcomes, be they moreproximal or more distal, are impor-tant.

5. The proximal-distal framework is a heu-ristic structure for school counseling andeducational practice, theory, and re-search. Salient proximal and distaloutcomes expressed in the frame-work help guide school counselorsand others toward more appropriateand more refined interventions, ac-

ACHIEVEMENT GAPS 409



tivities, practices, and programs. Ex-pressed outcomes provide the con-text for designing, implementing,and evaluating program componentsand programs. An appropriate andspecific set of proximal and distaloutcomes helps school counselorsbuild accountable programs, and ithelps educators—including schoolcounselors—transform and reformprograms and schools to better meetthe needs of all students.

Developing and implementing proximal-distal sequences will require a prekinder-garten through grade 12 (P–12) systematicapproach to school counseling program de-velopment. Some of the many rewards ofsuch efforts will be increased accountabilitydata for school counselors, better data forrefining interventions and programs, closerconnections of counselors to the academicmissions of their schools, and more effec-tive service delivery to students and fami-lies. Perhaps the greatest advantage of us-ing the proximal-distal framework is that itgives context, coherence, and meaning toschool counselors’ activities and efforts.When proximal-distal outcome data aredisaggregated by groups (e.g., groups ex-periencing achievement gaps) and ana-lyzed, interventions and programs can berefined to better meet the needs of studentsin those groups.

Achievement gaps are evident in bothproximal (e.g., elementary school achieve-ment) and distal outcomes (e.g., postsec-ondary educational attainment). In subse-quent sections of this article, we use theproximal-distal framework to organize re-search findings on educational outcomes.The meaning of the research findings forschool counselor roles and tasks is pre-sented within each section. We begin withresearch on distal educational outcomes,followed by sections on proximal outcomes,including school-level and intervention-leveloutcomes.

Distal Educational OutcomesLongitudinal Research on DistalOutcomesAdelman (1999) noted that the outcome

of college completion, important as it is, iswoefully ignored in the research literature.In the last several years, however, someresearchers (e.g., Adelman, 1999; Rosen-baum, 1998; Trusty, 2004; Trusty & Deil-Amen, 2007; Trusty & Niles, 2003) haveused large national databases to study theeffects of middle school and high schoolvariables on postsecondary educational at-tainment. Although data from these studiesdo not include variables from the elemen-tary school years, the results have manyimplications for students’ experiences in el-ementary school. In all five studies, highschool academic variables had the stron-gest influences on postsecondary educa-tional attainment. In particular, the numberof advanced math and science courses thatstudents completed in high school had thestrongest effects on degree completion. Forexample, Trusty and Niles (2003) useda longitudinal, nationally representativesample of students who were pursuingbachelor’s degrees soon after high school.They found that when a student added onehigh school credit in higher-level, intensivemath (algebra 2, trigonometry, precalculus,calculus), the likelihood of the student com-pleting a bachelor’s degree more than dou-bled. This strong effect of intensive mathcourses was present above and beyond theeffects of students’ math and reading abil-ity in middle school. Thus, the effort thatstudents put forth in high school is muchmore important than the ability they bringto high school. This finding underscores thesalience of developing positive academicattitudes and personal initiative in elemen-tary and middle school.

Researchers (Adelman, 1999; Trusty,2004; Trusty & Deil-Amen, 2007) found thatthe effects of high school course-takingwere strong across racial-ethnic and SESgroups. Results demonstrated that the rigor


MAY 2008



of the curriculum students experience inschools is critical to closing achievementgaps.

Of the recent large-scale studies on pre-college experiences and postsecondary at-tainment, Trusty’s (2004) study is the mostcomprehensive regarding precollege vari-ables. In addition to demanding course-work, variables that reflect social engage-ment in the school had strong effects onpostsecondary outcomes. For example, themore students engaged in extracurricularactivities in high school, the greater theirchances were of completing a bachelor’sdegree. Interestingly, the positive effects ofextracurricular engagement were strongerfor Latino, African American, and lower-SES students (Trusty, 2004; Trusty & Deil-Amen, 2007) than for other students.

Findings (Trusty, 2004) point to anothersalient means for closing achievementgaps. Parenting variables (i.e., parental in-volvement in children’s education and par-ents’ expectations for their children’s post-secondary educational attainment) hadpositive effects on the distal outcome ofcollege completion. The parenting variablewith the strongest effect for Latinos andAfrican Americans was parents’ expecta-tions. Students whose parents had high ex-pectations regarding their children’s post-secondary attainment were more likely tocomplete a bachelor’s degree. The twoaforementioned critical variables (i.e., par-ticipation in extracurricular activities andparents’ expectations) reflect students’ so-cial engagement in the school and parents’engagement in their children’s learning,and these variables can and should be pos-itively influenced by elementary schoolcounselors.

It is notable that researchers (Adelman,1999; Rosenbaum, 1998; Trusty, 2004) whoused nationally representative samplesfound that almost half of students who en-tered college with the purpose of attaininga bachelor’s degree did not complete thedegree within 8 years. These findings dem-onstrate that a large portion of young peo-

ple have high expectations for postsecond-ary attainment but lack the preparation tobe successful in college.

Trusty (2004) developed the Long-TermEducational Development model (LTEDmodel) from the study. This empiricalmodel is presented in Figure 1 (for statisti-cal information on the LTED model, refer toTrusty, 2004). Note in Figure 1 that, thestronger the effect on the outcome, thedarker and larger the arrow depicting theeffect. Trusty (2004) found that the LTEDmodel is valid for major U.S. racial-ethnicgroups (i.e., African Americans, AsianAmericans, Latinos, and whites). Trustyand Deil-Amen (2007) found that the modelis valid for lower-, middle-, and upper-SESstudents and for girls/women and boys/men.

Some variables that Trusty (2004) stud-ied had only weak effects on college com-pletion, and thus they were not included inthe LTED model. Psychological variablessuch as self-esteem and locus of control hadlittle effect on college completion, and, un-expectedly, school behavior (getting intotrouble, getting suspended) had little effecton the outcome. The influence of the vari-able attendance (students not cutting schooland classes) was stronger for Asian Amer-ican and white students and weaker forLatino and African American students.

The LTED model identifies numerousvariables critical to closing achievement gaps,and, more broadly, it attests to the impor-tance of student engagement-disengagement.When students are engaged academicallythrough taking demanding courses, whenthey participate socially through extracurric-ular school activities, and when parents areengaged in their children’s education, stu-dents benefit in the long term.

Roles and Tasks Supported by DistalOutcome ResearchElementary school counselors play a

primary role in fostering students’ and par-ents’ engagement. In academics, two broad




areas of focus for counselors are illumi-nated: (a) academic skill development and(b) education-career planning. With regardto academic skill development, the betterelementary students are prepared for a rig-orous curriculum in math and science, thegreater the likelihood they will reach theirlong-range educational goals. Reading, lan-guage arts, and social studies should not beignored, but the empirical data show that afocus on math and science carries long-term benefit. In terms of achievement gaps,

elementary school counselors should leadand advocate toward ensuring that all stu-dents have access to high-quality curriculaand instruction. Counselors can also supportstudent learning by working directly withstudents (e.g., teaching study skills, test-taking skills, time- and task-managementskills) and by consulting/collaborating withteachers, administrators, and parents (e.g.,child study teams, academic referrals, gen-erating interventions and support mecha-nisms). Proximal-distal outcome sequences

FIG. 1.—The Long-Term Educational Development (LTED) model


MAY 2008



could be formulated for each activity inwhich school counselors engage. For exam-ple, referrals to after-school tutoring mighthave an outcome sequence of frequency ofparticipation in tutoring, enhanced studentengagement in academic tasks, enhancedfeelings of belonging in school, better qual-ity in homework assignments, improvedschool grades, and improved basic skillstest scores.

Given that almost half of students whoattend college do not earn a degree, effec-tive education-career planning is a criticaltask for school counselors. Many studentsdo not take courses that are consistent withtheir postsecondary educational goals (seeTrusty, 2004; Wirt et al., 2005). Elementaryschool is not too early to help students be-come intentional in their education-careerplanning, connecting learning to careers,and exploring educational and career op-tions (see the standards, competencies, andindicators presented in the ASCA NationalModel; ASCA, 2003). When elementaryschool counselors take a career perspectiveon their work, their approach is appropri-ately developmental. Several authors (e.g.,Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Starr, 1996;Trusty & Niles, 2004a) maintain that thebest approach to career development inschools is one that involves grades P–12.Students benefit most when developmen-tally appropriate student activities, tasks,and data articulate smoothly across gradeand educational levels. For example, Trustyand Niles (2004a) described how portfolioscan help students in education-career plan-ning from elementary school through col-lege. Numerous tools in the ASCA NationalModel (ASCA, 2003; e.g., DevelopmentalCrosswalking Tool, Curriculum Cross-walking Tool) can help counselors developeffective scope and sequence in the schoolcounseling program’s guidance curriculumand in the school counseling program ingeneral. These tools and others relate toeducation-career planning and to other de-velopmental areas as well.

Important proximal and distal out-

comes related to education-career planningin elementary school and beyond are thatstudents (a) engage in education and careerexploratory behavior, (b) gain knowledgeand self-awareness around education andcareers, (c) have functional, appropriateeducation-career goals and written or elec-tronic education-career plans, and (d) per-form consistent with their ability and goals.These outcomes are related to a broad arrayof school counselor activities, includingclassroom guidance, student advising, indi-vidual and group counseling, leadershipand advocacy, collaboration, and counsel-ing program development. In a research-brief format accessible on-line, Trusty andHutchinson (2004) present numerous prac-tical school counseling activities and mea-surable outcomes. It is important that ele-mentary school counselors also devoteattention to barriers to learning that stu-dents experience. Successfully closingachievement gaps depends heavily on stu-dents having the opportunity to learn andthe opportunity to reach their educationaland career goals.

In addition to students’ academic en-gagement, the LTED model shows that so-cial engagement in school has a positiveeffect on the distal outcome of college com-pletion. Again, the effect of engagement inextracurricular activities was strongest forgroups with lower achievement. Students’social engagement with the school presentsparticular difficulties of a developmentalnature. That is, as students progressthrough elementary school, they tend tobecome less emotionally and cognitivelyengaged with school, and this disengage-ment is likely a natural aspect of develop-ment. For example, Trusty and Dooley-Dickey (1993) studied students’ feelings ofbelonging with their schools and valuing oftheir schools, using a largely African Amer-ican and lower-SES sample. They foundthat belonging and valuing dropped signif-icantly from grade 4 to grade 5, and fromgrade 5 to grade 6, then stabilized at thislower level through middle school. Thus, it




seems that elementary schools and counsel-ors have salient roles in promoting stu-dents’ emotional, cognitive, and social en-gagement with school, particularly at theupper-elementary grades when studentsnaturally gravitate toward an identity moreseparate from the adults in their lives.

Although students move away from aclose identity with adults in preadolescenceand adolescence, no similar generation gapexists in the area of career development.That is, numerous researchers (e.g., Kotrlik& Harrison, 1989; Peterson, Stivers, & Pe-ters, 1986; Sebald, 1989) have found that, inthe area of career development, young peo-ple rely more on parents for help than onpeers, teachers, or school counselors, andthis is the case for low-income andminority-group youth. Thus, it is no sur-prise that parents’ expectations emerged asan important variable in Trusty’s (2004)longitudinal research and in the LTEDmodel. An important task for elementaryschool counselors is to teach parents theLTED model and other empirically basedmodels so that parents can help their chil-dren in education-career planning and de-velopment. Because parents are continualresources for their children, helping par-ents support their children is likely one ofthe most productive roles for all schoolcounselors. Recent correlational, nonlongi-tudinal research (Alliman-Brissett, Turner,& Skovholt, 2004; Turner, Steward, & La-pan, 2004) supports the importance of par-ents’ roles and school counselors’ tasks inhelping parents help their children.

When parents are involved in their chil-dren’s education and career planning, stu-dents’ planning, academic development,and extracurricular involvement can all beenhanced. Parents, better than any otheradult, can ensure that their children areengaged academically and socially with theschool. Partnerships involving the commu-nity can foster positive relationships be-tween parents and schools. Trusty andNiles (2004b) noted that school-family-community partnerships are an effective

means for promoting students’ academicand social engagement with the school.

Outcomes Proximal to ElementarySchoolIn this section we describe empirically sup-ported elementary school counselor activi-ties on two levels: (a) the school level and(b) the specific intervention level. At theschool level, counselors’ leadership and ad-vocacy for effective school policies, prac-tices, and programs is the major focus; atthe intervention level, we present a sampleof strategic interventions that demonstrateefficacy for closing achievement gaps. Thereader should keep in mind that the prox-imal outcomes discussed in this section nat-urally connect with one another and withthe distal outcomes presented in the previ-ous section.

School-Level Proximal OutcomesResearch on school-level outcomes.

Borman and Overman (2004) used nationaldata to study student and school character-istics that differentiated low and high mathachievement for lower-SES and minoritystudents. Participants were from a cohort ofsixth graders, and the outcome was better-than-expected performance in math (aca-demic resilience) versus worse-than-expectedperformance (academic nonresilience). Stu-dent characteristics such as academic en-gagement and attitudes toward school hadstrong effects on resilience status. Some-what surprisingly, peer group variables(e.g., percentage of economically disadvan-taged minority students in the school) hadlittle effect on resilience. Likewise, schoolresources (e.g., class size, availability of in-structional supplies) and effective schoolsvariables (e.g., percentage of time devotedto academic instruction, strong principalleadership, monitoring of student progress)had little influence on academic resilience.In contrast, variables that measured thesupportiveness of the school community


MAY 2008



had strong effects. When schools were safeand orderly, when students and teachershad positive relationships, and whenschools supported family involvement, stu-dents were much more likely to perform ata higher level than expected in math.

Borman and Overman (2004) concludedthat lower-SES and racial-ethnic minoritystudents benefit most when elementaryschools focus on the psychosocial adjust-ment to and academic engagement of stu-dents in the school environment. Psychoso-cial adjustment targets the lack of fitbetween socialization in low-SES commu-nities and social expectations in schools.The authors stated, “school-based initia-tives that actively shield disadvantagedchildren from the risks and adversitieswithin their homes, schools, and communi-ties are more likely to foster successful ac-ademic outcomes than are several otherschool-based efforts” (p. 193).

Griffith’s (2002) research findings un-derscore the importance of students’ socialand academic engagement for closingachievement gaps. Using a large sample ofstudents in grades 3 through 6 from onemetropolitan area, Griffith found that pos-itive student-teacher relationships and safeand orderly school environments were as-sociated with higher student-reportedgrades.

Ordonez-Jasis and Jasis (2004) notedstrong research support for the relation be-tween family involvement and students’academic achievement. Fewer studies havefocused on the relation between commu-nity involvement and students’ achieve-ment; however, Sheldon and Van Voorhis(2004) maintained that studies that havebeen done consistently show positive influ-ences of community involvement. Currenteducational policy in the United States re-flects the common understanding that fam-ily and community involvement are impor-tant influences on achievement. Bryan(2005) pointed out that No Child Left Be-hind (NCLB) and other current and previ-ous school reforms mandate that schools

include parents and local communities inthe design and delivery of school improve-ment activities.

Obstacles to school-family-communityrelationships. Despite consistent researchevidence and prevailing educational poli-cies that stress the positive influence offamilies and communities on achievement,schools struggle to work in meaningfulways with families and community organi-zations (Broussard, 2003). The lack of pro-ductive partnerships is often not due to alack of effort on the parts of schools, fami-lies, or communities but often results froma combination of overlapping issues. Threeof the most common obstacles include cul-tural barriers and difficulty accessing re-sources, lack of connectivity, and lack ofresources.

Cultural barriers and accessibility: Accord-ing to Broussard (2003), universal issuesoften create cultural barriers to partner-ships between families and schools. Schooladministrators and teachers, in contrast toschool counselors, often have less exposureto learning and experiences that result ininformed approaches for working with di-verse families. Families and schools, as aresult of differing socialization and world-views, often have conflicting ideas aboutwhat constitutes parent involvement. In ad-dition, policies and procedures of schoolsoften give little attention to the values andperspectives of family members that wouldhelp create occasions for families andschools to clarify how families can andwant to be involved.

Lack of connectivity: Bryan (2005) ob-served that there is frequently an underly-ing lack of trust among schools, families,and communities when there is little inte-gration of the three. This observation isconsistent with the research findings ofBorman and Overman (2004) presentedpreviously. Teachers often comment thatparents “just don’t care what their childdoes,” community organizations state that“all schools care about is testing,” and fam-ilies often perceive that schools “only have




bad things to say about my child.” Suchenvironments have little social capital (e.g.,connections and resources in the commu-nity that are stored in human relationships)with which to build meaningful partner-ships. The lack of trust among these groupsoften develops from differences in valuesand expectations between schools and fam-ilies, parents who have had negative expe-riences as children with schools and socialservice agencies, lack of consistent and pos-itive interactions between parents andschools, and discrimination experienced bymarginalized families.

Lack of resources: In a study of school-and community-based organization part-nerships, Adger (2001) found that fundingwas the primary obstacle to successful col-laborations. Although this finding seemsinconsistent with that of Borman and Over-man (2004), lack of funding likely doeslimit or stall sincere partnership efforts.Fundamentally changing or improving theways schools, families, and communitieswork together to improve children’sachievement may require resources to sup-port staff, training, reorganization, andflexibility. The time-consuming require-ments of collaboration, lack of funding, andthe immediate demands on schools, fami-lies, and community organizations may of-ten result in failure to develop meaningfulpartnerships that would likely increaseachievement of children from marginalizedpopulations.

Roles and tasks supported by school-level proximal outcome research. School ef-forts targeting safe school environments,positive communication, and eliminationof barriers for students and families areworthy tasks for elementary school coun-selors. Counselors have the unique combi-nation of knowledge, skills, and attitudes toeffectively lead and advocate for produc-tive environments within schools and forpartnerships among schools, families, andcommunities. Trusty and Brown (2005) pre-sented the dispositions, knowledge, andskills school counselors need to effectively

advocate for positive systemic change.Leadership and advocacy focus on creatingopportunity to learn for all students. Therespect for the intrinsic strengths and wis-dom of communities and a sincere desire tofind solutions within families should be thefoundation for any leadership and advo-cacy efforts led by elementary school coun-selors (Ordonez-Jasis & Jasis, 2004; Trusty& Brown, 2005).

Nationally recognized school-family-community partnership models such as theSchool and Family Integration Model (Be-mak & Cornely, 2002) and the NationalNetwork of Partnership Schools (2006;Sheldon & Van Voorhis, 2004) provide di-rection for practical counselor roles andtasks aimed at closing achievement gaps.Reviews of these and other models willlikely generate creative leadership ap-proaches for elementary school counselorsand school systems that want to createpartnerships with families and communi-ties. The following are four suggestions forinitial leadership and advocacy tasks thatcounselors can assume to begin addressingcultural and accessibility issues, lack ofconnectivity, and lack of funds that arecommon barriers to school-family-community collaborations.

Learn and discover: Although school-family-community partnerships are diffi-cult to create and sustain, there are easilyaccessible descriptions of and tools forbuilding successful collaborations. The firststep in building these partnerships is toreview information and resources from or-ganizations and initiatives that have dem-onstrated success (Broussard, 2003). TheNational Network of Partnership Schools(2006), the National Association of Partnersin Education (2006), the National Center forFamily and Community Connections withSchools (2006), and the UCLA School Men-tal Health Project (2006) are a few of thesources of learning for elementary schoolcounselors. These organizations have thecommon purpose of providing support andresources for creating strong school, family,


MAY 2008



and community partnerships that will re-sult in improved learning and social out-comes for children and youth. Review ofthe research, resources, and upcomingevents sponsored by these initiatives is anexcellent starting place. These Internet sitesalso provide links to funding opportunities.

Expand the roles of elementary school coun-selors: After learning more about modelschool-family-community partnerships,counselors could develop proposals thatoutline how their responsibilities couldbe expanded to lead and advocate for crit-ical school collaborations with familiesand communities. These proposals maythen be presented to principals and otherkey school administrators, and counsel-ors can ask for support in expanding theirroles. The presentation of data and out-comes from successful collaborations isinstrumental to eliciting support fromprincipals and other school administra-tors (Bryan, 2005). Note that these efforts(i.e., developing proposals and present-ing data), in and of themselves, are advo-cacy efforts, and that data strengthen ad-vocacy considerably (Trusty & Brown,2005). Once they obtain support fromschool administrators, counselors can be-gin developing a local team of familymembers, community agencies, andschool staff that share responsibility fororganizing and implementing school-family-community partnership activities.

Lead systematic assessments: To knowwhat needs to be done, counselors needdata on the following: (a) current barriers tosuccessful partnerships; (b) the culture ofthe community; and (c) what schools, fam-ilies, and community agencies want fromcollaborations. These assessments can bedone informally (interviews, focus groups,observation) and formally (needs assess-ments, readiness surveys, and other toolsdeveloped by national initiatives). Devel-oping these partnerships can support ongo-ing outcome evaluation in addition to theleveraging of resources and development

of new ideas to support current and futurepartnerships.

Begin creating an action plan: To providestructure for guiding school-family-communitypartnerships, elementary school counselorsand their team, using the data collectedfrom systematic needs assessments, mustdevelop a plan of action, along with mea-surable proximal and distal outcomes.These outcomes are critical to maintainingmomentum and garnering support becausebuilding successful collaborations can oftentake years rather than months. Sheldon andVan Voorhis (2004) indicated that school-family-community partnerships that ana-lytically evaluate their efforts are morelikely to develop model programs and aremore focused and informed in their efforts.One way for counselors and their team toaccomplish this is to design a proposal forgrant funding. Grant applications providestructure necessary to creating an actionplan, demand outcome measures, and, ifawarded, are an excellent source of addi-tional funding and resources that will sup-port partnership efforts. In addition, schooladministrators and other personnel aremore likely to support projects that willbring recognition and funding. Federal,state, and local agencies and foundationsare common sources of funding for part-nership efforts (Adger, 2001). The RobertWood Johnson Foundation (RWJF), for ex-ample, recently released the Caring acrossCommunities grant program, which pro-vides fiscal support for school-connectedmental health services for marginalizedyouth. This innovative initiative encour-ages the delivery of culturally informed,linguistically accessible school-connectedmental health services for children andyouth of immigrant and refugee families.

Intervention-Level Proximal OutcomesBrown and Trusty (2005b) suggested

that school counselors at all levels employstrategic interventions for closing achieve-ment gaps. Strategic interventions are de-




signed to closely match students’ needsand proximal outcomes and are most stra-tegic when they are supported and refinedby research. In this article, we provide threedivergent examples of strategic interven-tions that have empirical support.

The strategic intervention that appearsto have the strongest empirical base is peerand cross-age tutoring and peer facilitation.School counselors are often involved asleaders or at least consultants/collabora-tors in such programs (e.g., see Tobias &Myrick, 1999; Trusty & Brown, 2005). Rob-inson, Schofield, and Steers-Wentzell (2005)reviewed the literature on peer and cross-age tutoring targeting math achievement.The authors synthesized several importantimplications regarding achievement gaps:tutoring has strong potential to improvemath achievement for students from mi-nority groups and to enhance positive atti-tudes toward and engagement with theschool. Academic benefits are present forboth tutors and tutees, and average- andlow-achieving students seem to be effectivetutors. Programs that are designed so thatstudents can serve as both tutors and tuteesappear to be effective.

There are particular advantages toschool counselor–led, comprehensive peer-facilitation programs. Comprehensive pro-grams are conceptualized as those that in-volve peer or cross-age tutoring, mediation,mentoring, and student leadership activi-ties. Brown and Trusty (2005a) noted thatcomprehensive programs are more flexiblethan narrower programs in addressing stu-dents’ needs (e.g., social, emotional, aca-demic). Further, comprehensive programsare able to use varying skills and interestsof the peer facilitators.

Researchers (Brigman & Campbell, 2003;Webb, Brigman, & Campbell, 2005) studiedthe efficacy of the Student Success Skills (SSS)approach for improving achievement, usingthe distal outcome of state basic skills testscores and the more proximal outcome ofteacher ratings of students’ academic, social,and self-management skills. The format of

the intervention was structured group coun-seling, and students learned skills in an inter-active, experiential manner. Across the Webbet al. study and previous similar studies,gains in skills were evidenced in teacher ob-servations and in math basic skills test scores.

Cox (2005) synthesized the results of 18empirical studies that focused on parent-educator collaborations and children’sschool outcomes (e.g., on-task behavior,school grades, schoolwork quality). Coxfound that parent-educator interventionsare most effective when two-way commu-nication regularly occurs (e.g., daily reportcards) and when parents and educators actas equals in the intervention. Importantoutcomes such as minority parents’ in-creased comfort with the school were evi-dent.

We note that empirically supportedstrategic interventions are not limited to thepreceding three examples. There is not,however, abundant research on strategicinterventions led by elementary schoolcounselors. More research, involving bothproximal and distal outcomes, is needed toexpand the knowledge base.

SummaryWhereas advances have been made in clos-ing achievement gaps, more work isneeded. There are numerous educationalachievement outcomes, and the proximal-distal framework helps elementary schoolcounselors and other educators developlogical causal sequences and gain usefulperspectives on developmental contexts.Proximal-distal outcome sequences canguide research, theory, and the activities ofcounselors and other educators. Outcomesequences also provide meaning and pur-pose for school counselors’ tasks and activ-ities.

Longitudinal, large-scale studies on thedistal educational outcome of college com-pletion reveal the critical influences of stu-dents’ academic efforts in high school. Inparticular, the academically demanding


MAY 2008



math and science courses that studentscomplete have heavy bearing on success orlack of success in college. This findingholds for students from all major racial-ethnic groups and SES levels; thus, stu-dents’ engagement in intensive academicsis a salient means for closing achievementgaps. The LTED model and research showthat, in addition to students’ academic en-gagement, their social engagement with theschool is important to long-term educa-tional success. Parents’ engagement in theirchildren’s education also has positive influ-ences.

The consistent theme that emergesacross studies of both proximal and distaloutcomes is that students’ academic andsocial engagement in the school is para-mount, and the empirical evidence consis-tently supports the idea that students’ en-gagement is an especially important meansfor closing achievement gaps. Research re-veals the efficacy of numerous elementaryschool counselor roles and tasks (academic-focused strategic interventions; education-career planning; parent education; leader-ship and advocacy for positive schoolenvironments; efforts aimed at integratingschools, families, and communities). Theseroles and tasks support students’ academicand social engagement. The distal andproximal outcome research supports thecontention that human relationships withinschools and among schools, students, fam-ilies, and communities are the basis of stu-dent engagement.

Elementary school counselors play a sa-lient role in promoting healthy relation-ships among those involved in children’seducation. Counselors need to be inten-tional and systematic in (a) learning abouteffective models and interventions; (b) ex-panding their leadership and advocacyroles; (c) determining what students,schools, families, and communities needand want; (d) setting targeted proximal anddistal outcomes; and (e) taking action. It isimportant that elementary school counsel-ors systematically collect data to show the

efficacy of their actions. Only then cancounselors make informed decisions re-garding how to close achievement gaps.The knowledge base on how to close gapsis growing, and the research reviewed inthis article can guide counselors. Knowl-edge generated from data in individualschools can build on this knowledge, help-ing elementary school counselors deter-mine the most productive actions for theirparticular settings.

References

Adelman, C. (1999). Answers in the tool box: Ac-ademic intensity, attendance patterns, and bach-elor’s degree attainment [On-line]. Available:http://www.ed.gov/pubs/Toolbox/Title.html

Adger, C. T. (2001). School-community-basedorganization partnerships for language mi-nority students’ school success. Journal of Ed-ucation for Students Placed at Risk, 6, 7–25.

Alliman-Brissett, A. E., Turner, S. L., & Skovholt,T. M. (2004). Parent support and AfricanAmerican adolescents’ career self-efficacy.Professional School Counseling, 7, 124–132.

American School Counselor Association (ASCA).(2003). The ASCA National Model: A frameworkfor school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA:Author.

Bemak, F., & Cornely, L. (2002). The SAFI modelas a critical link between marginalized fam-ilies and schools: A literature review andstrategies for school counselors. Journal ofCounseling and Development, 80, 322–331.

Borman, G. D., & Overman, L. T. (2004). Aca-demic resilience in mathematics among poorand minority students. Elementary SchoolJournal, 104, 177–195.

Brigman, G., & Campbell, C. (2003). Helpingstudents improve academic achievementand school success. Professional School Coun-seling, 7, 91–98.

Broussard, C. A. (2003). Facilitating home-school partnerships for multiethnic families:School social workers collaborating for suc-cess. Children and Schools, 25, 211–222.

Brown, D., & Trusty, J. (2005a). Developing andleading comprehensive school counseling pro-grams: Promoting student competence andmeeting students’ needs. Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.

Brown, D., & Trusty, J. (2005b). School counsel-ors, comprehensive school counseling pro-




grams, and academic achievement: Areschool counselors promising more than theycan deliver? Professional School Counseling, 9,1–8.

Bryan, J. (2005). Fostering educational resilienceand achievement in urban schools throughschool-family-community partnerships. Pro-fessional School Counseling, 8, 219–227.

Cox, D. D. (2005). Evidence-based interventionsusing home-school collaboration. School Psy-chology Quarterly, 20, 473–497.

Griffith, J. (2002). A multilevel analysis of therelation of school learning and social envi-ronments to minority achievement in publicelementary schools. Elementary School Jour-nal, 102, 349–366.

Gysbers, N. C., & Henderson, P. (2000). Devel-oping and managing your school guidance pro-gram (3d ed.). Alexandria, VA: AmericanCounseling Association.

Kotrlik, J. W., & Harrison, B. C. (1989). Careerdecision patterns of high school seniors inLouisiana. Journal of Vocational Education, 14,47–65.

National Association of Partners in Education.(2006). Homepage [On-line]. Available:http://www.napehq.org/

National Center for Education Statistics. (2002).Dropout rates in the United States: 2000 [On-line]. Available: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/droppub_2001/8.asp?nav�1

National Center for Family and Community Con-nections with Schools. (2006). Homepage[On-line]. Available: http://www.sedl.org/connections/

National Network of Partnership Schools. (2006).Homepage [On-line]. Available: http://www.csos.jhu.edu/P2000/

Ordonez-Jasis, R., & Jasis, P. (2004). Rising with DeColores: Tapping into the resources of la comu-nidad to assist under-performing Chicano-Latino students. Journal of Latinos and Educa-tion, 3, 53–64.

Peterson, G. W., Stivers, M. E., & Peters, D. F.(1986). Family versus nonfamily significantothers for the career decisions of low-incomeyouth. Family Relations, 35, 417–424.

Robinson, D. R., Schofield, J. W., & Steers-Wentzell, K. L. (2005). Peer and cross-agetutoring in math: Outcomes and their designimplications. Educational Psychology Review,17, 327–362.

Rosenbaum, J. E. (1998). College-for-all: Do stu-dents understand what college demands?Social Psychology of Education, 2, 55–80.

Ryan, B. A., & Adams, G. R. (1995). The family-school relationships model. In B. A. Ryan,G. R. Adams, T. P. Gullotta, R. P. Weissberg,

& R. L. Hampton (Eds.), The family-schoolconnection (pp. 3–28). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.

Sebald, H. (1989). Adolescents’ peer orientation:Changes in the support system during thepast three decades. Adolescence, 24, 937–946.

Sheldon, S. B., & Van Voorhis, F. L. (2004). Part-nership programs in U.S. schools: Their de-velopment and relationship to family in-volvement outcomes. School Effectiveness andSchool Improvement, 15, 125–148.

Starr, M. F. (1996). Comprehensive guidanceand systematic educational and career plan-ning: Why a K–12 approach? Journal of CareerDevelopment, 23, 9–22.

Tobias, A. K., & Myrick, R. D. (1999). A peerfacilitator-led intervention with middleschool problem-behavior. Professional SchoolCounseling, 3, 27–33.

Trusty, J. (2004). Effects of students’ middle-school andhigh-school experiences on completion of the bach-elor’s degree. Research monograph publishedby Center for School Counseling Outcome Re-search, University of Massachusetts-Amherst[On-line]. Available: http://www.umass.edu/schoolcounseling/PDFs/ResearchMonograph1.pdf

Trusty, J., & Brown, D. (2005). Advocacy com-petencies for professional school counselors.Professional School Counseling, 8, 259–265.

Trusty, J., & Deil-Amen, R. (2007). Testing theLong-Term Educational Development model bygenders and SES groups. Manuscript submit-ted for publication.

Trusty, J., & Dooley-Dickey, K. (1993). Alien-ation from school: An exploratory analysisof elementary and middle school students’perceptions. Journal of Research and Develop-ment in Education, 26, 232–242.

Trusty, J., & Hutchinson, C. A. (2004). The effects ofstudents’ middle-school and high-school experi-ences on completion of the bachelor’s degree: Howcan school counselors make a difference? (ResearchBrief No. 2.1). University of Massachusetts–Amherst, Center for School Counseling Out-come Research [On-line]. Available: http://www.umass.edu/schoolcounseling/PDFs/ResearchBrief2.1.pdf

Trusty, J., & Niles, S. G. (2003). High-schoolmath courses and completion of the bache-lor’s degree. Professional School Counseling, 7,99–107.

Trusty, J., & Niles, S. G. (2004a). A practicalapproach to career assessment in schools. InB. Erford (Ed.), Professional school counseling:A handbook of theories, programs and practices(pp. 431–441). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.


MAY 2008



Trusty, J., & Niles, S. G. (2004b). Realized poten-tial or lost talent: High-school variables andbachelor’s degree completion. Career Devel-opment Quarterly, 53, 2–15.

Turner, S. L., Steward, J. C., & Lapan, R. T.(2004). Family factors associated with sixth-grade adolescents’ math and science career in-terests. Career Development Quarterly, 53, 41–52.

UCLA School Mental Health Project. (2006).Homepage [On-line]. Available: http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/

Webb, L. D., Brigman, G. A., & Campbell, C.(2005). Linking school counselors and stu-dent success: A replication of the StudentSuccess Skills approach targeting the aca-

demic and social competence of students.Professional School Counseling, 8, 407– 413.

Wirt, J., Choy, S., Gerald, D., Provasnik, S.,Rooney, P., Watanabe, S., et al. (2002). Thecondition of education 2002 (NCES 2002-025). U.S. Department of Education. Wash-ington, DC: U.S. Government PrintingOffice.

Wirt, J., Choy, S., Rooney, P., Hussar, W., Pro-vasnik, S., & Hampden-Thompson, G.(2005). The condition of education 2005(NCES 2005-094). U.S. Department of Ed-ucation, Institute of Education Sciences.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print-ing Office.




Documents

Closing Achievement Gaps: Roles and Tasks of Elementary School Counselorseaop.ucsd.edu/198/achievement-gap/Closing Achievem… · · 2014-01-16Closing Achievement Gaps: Roles and