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Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Chapter 5: Memory: Models and Research Methods
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Some Questions of Interest• What are some of the tasks used for studying
memory?• What is the traditional model of memory?
What are some of the alternative models?• What have psychologists learned by studying
both exceptional memory and the physiology of the brain?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
But first, a test!
• Let’s generate some words…
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Processes in Memory
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Which type of test would you rather have?
An essay or a multiple-choice exam?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Methods Used to Study Memory
• Recall– Serial recall– Free recall– Cued recall
• Recognition
• = these are explicit memory tasks
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Implicit memory
• Remember priming?
• Procedural memory, too
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Implicit Memory Tasks
Participants are exposed to a word list
TigerLion
ZebraPanda
LeopardElephant
After a delay…
Participants then complete word puzzles; they are not aware this is a type of memory testWord fragment completion:C_E_TA_E_E_ _A_ N__ E _ R AWord stem completion:Mon _____Pan_____
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Procedural Memory
• Knowing how to do something– Ride a bike
– Skateboard
– Ski
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Methods to Assess Procedural Memory
• Rotary-pursuit task– Keep stylus on a dot
on a rotating disk
• Mirror-tracing task– Watch mirror image
to trace a figure
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Models of Memory
• Represent ways that memory has been conceptualized– Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three-stage model– Craik & Lockhart’s level of processing model– Baddeley’s working memory model– Tulving’s multiple memory systems model– McClelland & Rumelhart’s connectionist
model
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Traditional Model of Memory
• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) three-stage model
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5Sperling Sensory Memory
Demonstration: CogLab Partial Report
• A matrix of 12 letters and numbers briefly flash on the next few slides
• As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Averbach & Coriell (1961) Iconic Memory Research
N M L C W D P Q A X I N Y K J U
- Showed matrix for 50 msec - Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays - Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Second Demonstration
G E U L M F S XW P M B D H J Y
- Showed matrix for 50 msec - Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays - Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in sensory memory- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this technique
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Sensory Stores• Iconic store or visual sensory register
– Holds visual information for 250 msec longer
– Information held is pre-categorical– Capacity: up to 12 items– Information fades quickly
• Econ or auditory sensory register – Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds
longer to enable processing
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Short-Term Memory
• Attention– Attend to information
in the sensory store, it moves to STM
• Rehearsal– Repeat the
information to keep maintained in STM
• Retrieval– Access memory in
LTM and place in STM
Short-Term Memory (STM)
AttentionStorage & Retrieval
Rehearsal
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Research on Short-Term Memory
• Miller (1956)– Examined memory capacity– 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”
• Chunking: organize input into larger units– 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 3 - Exceeds
capacity– 1980 1998 2003 - Reorganize by
chunking
Birth year
HS graduation
College graduation
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Long-Term Memory
• Capacity– Thus far limitless
• Duration– Potentially
permanent
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Bahrick’s Research on Very Long-Term Memory
• High school yearbooks containing student names and photos
• 392 high school graduates (17-74) took four different memory tests
• For some of the participants, it was as long as 48 years since they graduated
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Bahrick et al. (1975) Results• 90% accuracy in face and name recognition
after 34 years• 80% accuracy for name recognition after 48
years• 40% accuracy for face recognition after 48
years• 60% accuracy for free recall after 15 years• 30% accuracy for free recall after 30 years
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Levels of Processing Model of Memory
• Craik & Lockhart (1972)– Deep processing leads to better memory
• Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong memory
– Shallow processing emphasizes the physical features of the stimulus
• The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays
– Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Support for Levels of Processing
• Craik & Tulving (1975) – Participants studied a list in three different
ways • Structural: Is the word in capital letters? • Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog? • Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence?
“The ______ is delicious.”
– A recognition test was given to see which type of processing led to the best memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Craik & Tulving (1975) Results
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Yes No
Sentence Type
Rec
og
niz
ed
Case
Rhyme
Sentence
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
• Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977)– Encoding with respect to oneself
increases memory
Self-Reference Effect
Capital Rhymes Means the Describes letters? with? same as? you?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Working Memory Model
• Phonological Loop– Used for acoustic rehearsal
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad– Used for visuo-spatial information
• Episodic buffer • Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an
integrated episode between systems using different codes
• Central executive• Focuses attention
• Plans sequence of tasks, switches attention between different parts
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Working Memory Model Support
• Baddeley (1986) – Participants studied two different list types – 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top – 5 syllables: university, opportunity,
aluminum, constitutional, auditorium
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Working Memory Model Support
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad– Dual-task paradigm
– Sketchpad can be disrupted by requiring participants to repeatedly tap a specified pattern of keys or locations while using imagery at the same time
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Tulving’s Multiple-Memory Systems Model
• Semantic memory– General knowledge– Facts, definitions, historical dates
• Episodic memory– Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Multiple-Memory Systems Model Support
• Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)– Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic
memory tasks while being monitored by PET
• Results – Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially
active in encoding (both) and in semantic memory retrieval
– Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially active in retrieval of episodic memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Connectionist Perspective
• Parallel distributed processing model– Memory uses a network– Meaning comes from
patterns of activation across the entire network
– Spreading activation network model
– Supported by priming effects
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Exceptional Memory
• Case studies of mnemonists
• Studies of skilled memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Memory Movies• Take any character from a movie who has a
memory deficit, and, using terms from the chapters, explain what the memory problem is and why it occurs – Johnny Mnemonic; 50 First Dates; Memento; Total
Recall; Bourne Identity; Dark City; Manchurian Candidate; Overboard; The Changeling; Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind; The Majestic: Mulholland Drive; The Notebook; Paycheck; Sommersby; The Vow
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Case Studies
• S. (Luria, 1968)– Long strings of words
– Remembered over 15-18 years
• Rajan Mahadevan– Can recite pi to 31,811 places
– No forgetting on matrices up to 20 x 20 digits
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Deficient Memory
• Amnesias – Retrograde amnesia
• Loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma
– Infantile amnesia• Inability to recall events of young
childhood
– Anterograde amnesia• No memory for events that occur after
the trauma
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Amnesia Studies
• Amnesiacs show normal priming (implicit), but poor recognition memory (explicit)– They did not remember having seen the
word list, but completed the word fragments at the same rate as normals
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Hippocampus and Memory– Critical for integration and
consolidation– Essential for declarative
memory– Without the
hippocampus, only the learning of skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming can occur
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Symptoms (gradual, continuous, and irreversible)– Memory loss– Problems doing familiar tasks– Problems with language– Trouble knowing the time, date, or place– Poor or decreased judgment– Problems with abstract thinking– Misplacing things often, such as keys– Changes in mood, behavior, and personality
• These symptoms could be an early sign of Alzheimer’s when it affects daily life
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. SternbergChapter 5
• Atrophy of the cortical tissue – Alzheimer’s brains shows abnormal fibers that
appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings)
– The resulting damage of these conditions may lead to disruption of impulses in neurons
Alzheimer’s Disease and the Brain