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Colonial Policy with Reference to the Philippines
Author(s): Bernard MosesReviewed work(s):Source: Proceedings of the American Political Science Association, Vol. 1, First AnnualMeeting (1904), pp. 88-116Published by: American Political Science Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3038324 .
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88
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE
Which
n
turn
ive
an
impetus
o
many
ther
orms,f
business
activity.
In this
way war
miay e an immediate,enefit
o
nationswhich voidbeingdrawndirectlynto' ostilities.But
such gains
are temporary,
nd in the long
runthe, estructive
*consumption
hich
s,
he conomicmeaning
f war must
njure
the
ndustrial
abric f all
Christendom.On thegroutnd,
hen,
of
material
welfare,
s
well
as,of
humanity, ar
should
be dis-
couraged,
nd
every tep which
makes t
less,
asy
to'
wage
is
to thatextent n added
deterrent.
f
the
Hague,
Conference,
meetingn the full ight f thecommonnterestslf ll nations,
any
one of whichat any
time
may
be eitherbelligerent
ir
neutral, an
see its way to'
ani nternationalagreement
hich
shallput
the
ban
oif
municipal aw
o'nthe sale to' belligerents
of the more dangerous
orms 'f contraband,, long aldvance
wiill
e taken
owards
he
preservation
lf hepeaceo'f heworld.
COLONIAL
POLICY
WITH REFERENCE
TO
THE
PHILIPPINES.
BERNARD
MOSES.
The'character
f
Spain's
pollicy
ith
reference
o,
he
Philip-
pinesas
well
as. with
reference
o,
her
other
oloinies
as
to a
verygreatextent eterminedyher ong crusade gainstthe
Moors. This
strugglewvas
art oif
he
war olf
he
Christians
against
he
Mohammedans.
The
other
lart
if t
was
carried
on
by
the
other
uropelan
ations
n
Palestine. In
the
East
the
Crusades
ame
to
an
end
by reasoln
f
the
waninig
nterest f
France,
taly,
nd
Germany.
These
natioins
iight
ease
from
the
conflict
henever
heywere
wearyof it
without
oss
o,f
territoryr diminutiolnlfnationalhonor. But thewelsterni
winig
of the
Mohammedan
orce,
as
within
he
borders
f
Spain.
Therefolre,
lthough
he
sitruggle
as
ended in
the
East,
Spain was
obligeld oi
carry
t
on
single-hand,ed
n
the
West. Foir
two,
hundred
years
after
the
last
half-hearted
crusaders
f
France
had
retired,
pain,
ointiniued
he war
with
unabateld
eal,
not
merely
o
defend
Western
Europe
from
the
Mohammedanonqueror,ut opreserve erhonor, o, e-
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
89
fend
her
territolry,
o
maintain
elr
eligio1n,,
nd
to
perpetu-
ate
hernational
xistence.
Thus Spainwaskept n thewaragainst heMoors. Seven
centuries
f
conflict ith non-Christian
eople
fixed he
es-
sential
features
f
her
character,
nd made
heir evoted
o
the
forms
nd
doctrines
f the
church.
They
made
her
ntolerant;
fQr
ifferencef belief
had for
centuries
een
the
real
ground
of
her hostility
o the
Moors.
The
Spanish
character,
ike
the
character
f every
ther
nation,
s the result
f
forcels,
ot
underthe controllf thenationalwill. The Spaniardshave
not consciously
nd willfully
made
themselves,
onservative
and
intoilerant.
he
nation
ha,s acquired
its character
s
other
nationshave
acquired
theirs,
y
the
force
of
their
n-
heritance
nd
environment.
The year
which
clolsed
he
Moorish
wars,was
the
year
of
the
discovery
f
America.
The experience
f
the
nation
had
given t the pirit fa crusader, ut with heoverthrowlf he
unbelievers
n
the
Peninsula,
he Spaniards
needed
new
fielld
in
which
o exercise
heir
pirit.
This was
furnished
y the
then uncivilized
nhabitants
if
America nd
the
Philippines:;
and
thus
t
happeined
hat
Spanish
colonization
artook
f
the
character
f a crusade.
No
instructions,
o,
he royal
agents
in the New
World
or
in
the
Philippines
ere
oftener
epeated
than hosewhich njtoinedhese gents,o keep speciallyromi-
nent ll
those
measures
hat
would
contribute
o the
conver-
sion of
the Indians,
nud o
their
growth
n
a
knoiwledge
f
Christianity.
In
keeping
with
this
general
purpose,
evere
restrictions
were mposed
pofn
igration
o the
colonies,
n order
hat
un-
worthy
ersions
ight
not have
an
opportunity
o'exert n
evil
influencen thenative nhabitants.All pers,ons ewlycon-
verted
ro-m
udaism
ir
Mohammedanism
o
the Catholic
aith
were
fo-ibidden
o
emigrate.
The
same
prohibition
pplied
to
the
children
nd
grandchildren
f
persons
whot
ad
been
underthe ban
of
the nquisition,
nd
also
to,
he
descendants
of
persons
who
had
been burned
t the
stake
or
condemned
for
heresy.
By
this
means
t was
designed
o
keep
the
ndians
freefrom he nfluencefhereticsnd providefor
their
on-
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90
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE
version o the
orthodox aith. And
to
make this
prohibition
effective
eavy
penalitieswere
imposed
upon
persons who
should in any way contributeo the violationof thesere-
strictions.
Now
that Spain
has,
allen rom he
relatively ighposition
which he on'ce
ccupied
nd her
colonies
have eitheir
ecome
independenttates,or
been
rought nder
he uthority
f other
nations,
t is
almost
nevitablehat
her
achievemnents
hould
be
underestimated;
or
failure
n
politics
nd
war
leads
the
worldgenerallyo think ightly f all the olther roiductsf
a
natioln's
ctivity. The
politicaland
nilitary decline of
Spain
are
likely
o
give
ris.e
o new and
lower estimates f
Spain's
achievements
n
behalf f
civilization,
nd
it
is
quite
possiblef
hatthese
estimates
will
be
erroneous;
hat
Spa-in
n
herweakness
will not receive
ust
credit orher
great
chieve-
ments
n
the
days
of
her
power.
It ha.s n fact, lreadybecomefashionable o speak ightly
olf
pain's
work
n
exploring
nd
colonizingAmerica nd the
islandsof the
Pacific.
But this
flippant
udgm'ents'
not the
final word
respecting
pain's
colonial policy.
But
we can
hardly
xpect that he
American
will
render
just revisio'n 'f
this
udgment;
orhe is the
historical
ntagonist 'f he
Span-
iard, and
he
ha;s
always founndt
difficulto,
appre'ciate
he
achievemientsf the Spaniards; partlybecause o'fpolitical
rivalry, nd
partly
because o'f
the wide
divergence
of their
aims and the
nlikeness'ofheir
ational
o'ints,f
view. Th'e
Spaniard
s
conservative,
hile
he American
s.
radical. The
Spaniard
s
polite',
nd
attaches
reat
mpoirtance
o'
forms f
speech
nd
ceremoniesn
social
intercourse. he
American
s
unconventional
n
spelech,
nd
regards he
ceremonious
olite-
nessolf heSpaniardas themanifestationlf certain uman
weakness.
The
Spaniard
s
skillful
n
formulating
ules
and
methods.
The
Americans
prompt
n
action. The
Spaniard's
power
a nd
facility
n
formulatingaws is,
manifest n
his
colonial
legislation,
which.
s
moire
colmipletely
nified n'd
systemnatized
h-an
hat
of any
othernation.
The
Counciloof
the
Indies that
made the
laws for
theSplanish
olonies
pro-
vided
a
comprehensiveodewhichwas appliedto everypart
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
9I
of
Spain's
vast
possessions
beyond
the sea. The
Supreme
Court
that
was
established
n the
Philippine
slands,had the
same form f organization s that stablishednBuenosAyres
-or
Guatamala.
They
were
all
createdunder
common
aw.
And themunicipal overnment
hatwas
set
up
in
Chile
was
formed nder
he same
law
that determinedhe organization
of
the municipal overnments
n
Mexico, nd the
Philippines.
The wholerealmof Spain's
colonialdominionwas
subject o
a
singlebody
of
laws
which ecured
for
all
parts
similar
n-
stitutionsnd the sam e racticalmethods. It maybe that he
Spaniiards rought
ess
practical
wis-domn
o their olonial d-
ministrationhanthe
English; but
as
general
tatementsheir
laws were more
complete
han the
English
aws.
The moist triking ifference
etween
he
colonial policies
of
Spain
and
England
relateto
the control xercised
y
the
two nations
over
their
respective
olonists nd
the
colonial
trade. All the po'rts f England were open. o, migrationo
the coloniesor tradewith
them,
nd the English authorities
paid
little )r
no, ttention o, he
character
r
standing
f the
personwho proposed o, migrate.
Spain, on the otherhand,
during he greaterpart o'f
her
colonial period allowed ships
for her
colonies
to' depart
fromonly one port, at first he
port
of
Seville,
ater
the port
o'f
Cadiz; and th,emost rigor-
ous scrutinywas,exercisedrespectinghe emigrants. The
British olonist
havingreached
America,was freeto' visit or
reside anywhere
n
any of the colonies; while the Spanish
colonistwias required o'
announce
is
destination efore ail-
ing, and was rejquired,
oreover, o rema,infterhis arrival
within the
district,
r
jurisdictioln,ndicated. Between the
two
policies
here
was the contrast f the argest ibertyn the
case ofEnglanfdnd the mostrigo,rous,estrictionnd minute
supervision n the part of Spain.
In
elstimiatilnghe results f Spain's influencen the Philip-
pine
Islands,
we
have to, ake
into accountnot only the per-
sistently enevollentntentions
f the King, but also the un-
controlled
malevolence'f
ubo'rdinatefficersnd irresponsible
p'rivate ersons. The King
mighit esign the we'll-beingf
the
islanders,but
if
his agents,
had other designs,he was
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92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE
powerless o carry ut his intentions; or t mustbe remem-
bered
that
duringthe greaterplart lfthe Spanish colonial
period, he crown, ad only he most nfrequent,nd oftenn-
direct, ommunication,iththe Philippines. Until the early
partof thenineteenthenturyhe
Philippine
silandswere
tin-
der the viceroy f Mexico; and the coninectionetween hese
two parts.
f
the
vice-kingdom as maintained y
a
line of
ships betweenAcapulco and Manila and the schedule f sail-
ings was one ship a year ea,chway; i,nfact,the trip froim
Acapulco o Manila and returnastedusually hirteenr four-
teen months. There was no competition,or no, oither art
of Span,ishAmerica
migtht
end vessels to, or receivegoods
from, he Philippine slands.
Under
thiscondition f affairs he local officers,nd private
merchants
might
buse the
coinfidencef
the
King
with
m-
punity;
nd
thatthey ften. id this s, vident
rom
uch ap-
peals to the King as that made by Domingo'de Sala,zar, he
firstbishop of th'e Phillippines. Having learned
of
abuses by
the Spaniards, hebishopwas movedby thehardships,
hat
be-
fell
the people, anid in,formed he King,
in
o'rder
that
these
abuses might
e
removed.
The
p'eople,
e
offirmed',ught
to
be feasted nd favoired,
n oirder hat
theymight
become
t-
tached to o'ur fai'th nd
understand he
m'ercy
f Go'd
in
bringinghem o a knowledgelft. In
I
583 when hebishop
wroste
here
were
learly
wo'
pinions especting
hemanner n
w'hich
he
Filipino's
hould be
treated, ust
as, there
appear
to be
two
opinions,
ow.
Th'e
fact
that such
petitions
nd
protestsweremade and presented o'the King showsthat h,e
protesting arty represented; state
of
public conscience ot
thenusual
among
the
natilons'dealing
ith he
in'feirior
aces.
Thereis no' doubt t'hatmanym'enfoundth'eir ayto the
Spanish
colonies
whose
purpose
was
rather o
spoil
than
to
coinverthe
heathen.
There
s;
no'
doubt,moreover,
hat
many
men have made their
way
to' the
Philippines.
ince
they
ame
under
American
uthority
ho
have more
nterestn
miaking
great im'mediate ains thian,n proltectingthe lives
of
the
Filipinos
r
in
rendering
hem ecure
n
thepossession
'f heir
property
nd their
ppo'rtunities.
ut it is
not
safe in either
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AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
93
case
to
affirmi
hat he
personswho would spoil the weak
rep-
resent he real designs olf he nationto whlich
hey
belong.
Whether pain's coiloinialxpeditions nd settlements ere t-
tended by more or less unprincipledmen
than
the similar
undertakingsifothernations s a subject that
at
this point
need not be minutelynvestigated. A moreprofitablenquiry
concerns
he
specific nfluences
xerted
by the Spaniards
for
the prromotion
f
civilizatiolnmong the Filipinos;
and
prob-
ably no influences roceeding rom he Spatiards were more
importantr morefar-reachingn their ivilizing ffect n the
Filipinos han those whichresulted n making hem Chris-
tian people. It miay e difficuilto
determinefo
what extent
their
onversion
modifiedheirfundamentalace
ideas,
or
to
findout how
far
their houghts
bout
Christianity
oincide
with
he
thoughts
f
Western
Christians
n the
same
subject.
But whatevermayibe the
truthabout
this,
matter,
he
Filipinols,nderSpanish nflurenice,ecamie ormally hristians,
and the Church,
n
the
course -of
he centuries
t
has
dominated
th-em,as impressed pon, heiriminds large
number
f
prac-
tical deas. Through he nfluence
f these
deas the
Filipinos
have,to a certain xtent, een turned way from he oriental
point
of
view
and fmtadeo
see
things
s
Spaniards
ee them.
They
have been
broughtwithrespect
o
manyparticulars
o
occupy heSpaniard's o'int lf iew. As theSpaniard, hrough
long contactwith the Moors and the infusioln if certain
amount of Jewish nd Moo'rish lood,
has,
become omething
of
an 'oriental; o the Filipino, hrolughong
contact
with
he
Spaniards
nd
the
nfusion
f a certain mountof
European
blood,
has
becolmeiomething
lf
European.
On
their
rrival
n
the
Philippines
he
Spaniards
found he
people still undera tribal organizationhatapparently on-
tributed
ery
ittle o the
reservation
f
o'rder
nd
pleace;
for,
in
the anguage f a contempoirary
ccolunt rom he last half
of the
sixteenth
entury,
these
people
declare war
among
themiselves
t
the slightest
rovocation,
ir
with
none
what-
ever. All
those who,
have not made a
treaty
f
peace with
them or formied
ith
themthe
b1lood
ompact, re
consid-
ered als enemies. Privateeringnd robbery ave a natural
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94
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE
attraction
or them.
Whenever
he
occasion
presents
tself,
they
rob one
another,
ven
f
they
be neighbors
r
relatives."
(P. I., V. III-, p. 55)-
Under the
nfluencef
the Spaniards
n the sixteenth
en-
tury
sudden
hangewas
made
n the
social
condition
lf
he
islands.
TIhe
Filipinos
were
led to acknowledge
superior
political
uthority,
ribal allegiance
disappeared,
nd
in the
towns,
s
they radually
rew
up,
there
was
formed
nucleus
o;f
moreor
less cultivated
ociety hat
n
the
course
of
time
acquired
a
certain European
character.
The
schools
that
wereestablishedmade a few olf he young Filipinosfamiliar
with subjects
ordinarily resented
n
a
European
curriculum.
When
n the ourse
'f
years
young
mien
esiredmoire
dvanced
instruction,
hey
natura.lly
ent
to
Spain, and
a.t the end
of
their
tudies
eturnedo
the slands horough-going
uropeans.
They
returnedmoreover,
with
an ambition
o
make
the
in-
stitutions
f theirnative
country
moire
ike those
of Europe.
Theybecame awyers nd officersn thecivil service nd in
both
apacities
heywere
nstrumental
n spreading
mong
the
people
knowledge
f
European
aw,on
which
hepublica.d-
ministration as founded,
nd which
had been
adopted
o
fix
the
relations.
f
private
persons
tot
one
another.
The
civil
law
havingbeen
made
the
basis of
the
legal
system
f the
islands,
ll persons
n
seeking
o acquire
knowledge
f this
systemrerenecessarilyed to'conssiderhesocialconditionsn
Europe
in
which
his
aw
aroise. The law and
the adminis-
trative
ystem
onsti'tutedhus
the road
by
which
the culti-
vated
minds
among
the
people
were
drawn
back
to,the
an-
cient
ourcefromwhich
Europlean
ations
have derived
much
of
ttheir
ulture nd legal wisdom.
The
importance
'f
bring-
ing
an
oriental eople
under European
aw
cannotbe
easily
overestimated. t is a purelypracticalprocess, nd in the
case
of
the
Filipino's
t
was
an essential
tep
in
the develop-
ment
olf civilized ociety.
The Uniteld
tates
in
entering
up'on
ts
task
in
the
Philippiine
slands enjoyed
he very
great
advantage
of Spain's
preliminary
ork
to
this
end.
The
ancient raditio'ns
nd
institutionsf barbarism
ad
been
set
aside;
the
popular
mind
had conceived
he dea
oif rder
under
law; and the senseof politicalunity ad been developed.
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
95
An
important tep,
oftenan-
exceedingly
ifficult
tep,
n
preparing oir
he rise, lf rude peiople o a
higher
tage
of
cultivations the destructionf ancient oicial orms nd pre-
judices.
Withoutthis
preliminary
orkthe
recoinstructive
process s impossible.
If
you would
rebuild
city
nd
make
it more
beautiful, ou must
first
lear away
the ruins
and
uglybuildings
hat
umber
he
ground.
If
you
would
rebuild
society
nd
give
it
better
nstitutions
ou
must
first lear
the
ground of
such organizations
nd ideas
as
are
incompatible
with he executiolnlf henewdesign. In caseold institutions
have become igidby
long
continuancend
are
maintained
y
an
uncompromising
onservatism,
he
changes required
to
introduce
new and
better
oicial
xistence ecome difficult
if
not
impossible. Caste as it appears
n India furnishes
pertinentllustration. t has
become
rigid by
continuance
through
long period; t is
upheldby
a conservatismhat
s
intensified
y religious
fanaticism; nd
it is entirelyncom-
patiblewith'thentellectual
eceptivity
nd free ntercoursef
progressive
ociety. It
presents n unwavering
esistence o
England's
attempts o
ameliorate he condition f
the Indian
people by the
introduction
f the ideas and nelw
nstitutions
that
would
contributeo
the freedom,nlightenment,
nd gen-
eral
well-being
f the
people.
Obstacles
ike
hose
resented
y
the
ystem.f Caste n
India
are notencounterednthe, hilippineslands. Theonly trong
tie
of social
union
s
the
sentimentf
loyalty o a family r to
a
personal
uperior.
In
thematter f
social
organization he
people re apparently
ea,dy or any
new thing.
The church
has
made its
leveling
nfluenceLfelt;nd not, he
least of the
services t
has rendered
s
that t swept way many
old p,re-
judices
and
traditions
nd habits, nd
left an
unencumbered
fieldon whichnew governmentalrganizationsmightbe es-
tablished
nd
more
enlightened
ommunities
eveloped. In
thus
clearing
he
ground
for a new
social
structure nd
in
leading the
peopleto
accept thepractices f the
church ery
important
work was
done towa.rds
reparing he Filipinos
to take
advantage
of the
opportunities resented
o them
under
a
liberal
governmentnd through
general
ystem
f
public nstruction.
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96
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
The rule of the Spaniards
has, moreover, eft a miarked
effect
n the personal haracter
nd bearing f the cultivated
partof the Filipinopeople. The Spaniardsare sticklers or
form nd ceremonyn speech nd
conduct, nd this uality hey
have
communicated
o the
Filipinos. It is of course,easier
for
barbarous eopleto acquire
the
forns
than he spirit f
civilized
ife.
Thro,ugh bserving he foirms owever, here
comes gradually an
understanding f the
spirit.
As, the
Spaniards
aid
great
stresson
formialonduct,
hey
were ex-
cellentmasters n the first tagesof the discipline hatmakes
for civilization. Through them
the Filipinos have attained
a
noteworthy
istinctioln
moing he
peoplesof the Far East
for their
good
manners nd
generally ignified earing. As
instructorsnd models n this
department(he mericans, ould
have been greatly nferior o, he
Spaniards. The Aml'rican
goes
to
the
slanids
s the
representative
lf
superior
iviliza-
tion,buit ispersonal uperiorityotes ot appear n hisman-
ners. In thisrespect heFilipinooutranks im. The Ameri-
can, however, ustifies
is
presence
s
a leaderand a teacher
in
the islandsby
the
fact
that his
mission
begifs
where
the
mission f
the
Spaniards
ended.
The
Spaniards taught
he
Filipinos he
forms
f enlightenedoiiety;
the Americans re
expected
o
give them
an
opportunity
o
acquire
its)
open-
minded,iberal,andhumane pirit.
That thecultivated ilipinosunder
he
Spaniards cquired
somewhatf
the
spirit
f
civilized
ociety
s
well
as the
folrmni,
is
indicatedby the position
of
woman
in
the
islands. No-
where
n
all the
Orient s,
he
position
f
woman
better
han
n
the
Philippines. Amoing he, non-Christian
Malays,
she
is
degraded y polygamy
nid
lavery.
In
China
thosewho
are
'especially avored re as irratiolnallyreated s thosewho, re
found t theother xtreme f
the social
sicale.
In
the
Philip-
pines woman
is
neither useless ornament
tor
beast
of
burden,
but a
rational
being
standingby
her
husband anid
contributing
er
part
in
the
struggle
for
existence.
Even
when
the
struggle
as ceased
to be
hard,
he
does not
appear
to
'be
disposed
to' renounce
ll
effort nid ll
responsibility.
She is willing o make acrifices,o'r erowneducation, utas
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
97
yet
her
oppoirtunities
ave not
been commensurate ith
her
ambition.
Under the new
regime
many
wh'o
-expect
o
be
teachers reattendinghenormal chools,,ndgive promise f
being
able to, rendervaluablo
assistan'ce
n
maiintaining
nd
developing
he
efficiency
f the
public
chools. The
ordinary
Filipinowoman
has a
liking
for rade.
She
appears
to have
less
vanity
nd
miore
usilness
agacity
hanher husband.
In
the
more
fortunateocial
circumstances
er
bea'ring
s
such
as to
suggest
better
ppoirtunities,
nd a wider
xperience
han
she has actuallyhad. Like the women of Southern urope,
the
women ,f
he
Philippines
re
attached
o, he
church,
nd
throiugh
ts
influence
ave been
brought
nto
a
polsition uite
different
rom he traditional
positioln
f
the olriental
omen.
But
in
order
hat
an
exaggeratedimpressionof
he
extent
of
the
Spaniard's
Europeanizing
nfluence
may
not
be con-
veyed,
t is
necessary
o recall
he fa ct
h1at
his,
nfluence as
limited y theSpanish policyof communicatings much as
posisible
ith
he
Filipinos
n
one'or
another
lf
helir
wn
dia-
lects; forwherever he native
anguage
was used therew,as,
'strong
robability
hat
the
Spaniards would
descendto the
Filipino's,
lane
of thought nstead: f .lifting im to,
th'e
Europe-an's
onceptionind pointof view.
'The Filipinoswho
were
to
any
cons;ider;able
xten,t
uropeanizedwerethosewho
became amiliar ith heSpan,ishanguage,nd thushad access
to
European
deas.
'The
Filipino'swho'
nerver
new Spanish
remained, xcept n rare cases, withoutmuch knowlddge f
Europle r
sympathy
ithEuropeanizing
eifoirmi.hereifore,
in
discouraging he Filipinos fromi
earnin'g
pianish, s was
extensively
one
un)derheold regime, heSpaniards
o'sitively
limitedthe
nfluence hichmight therwisehave
proice'eded
from
heir resience. So effectual as thisd'iscouragemnent,ir
so
few
opportunitiesoir
earning he language were offered,
that,
fter
n
occupation
f three
hundred
nd fifty
ea:rs,
ess
tihan en
per
cent.
f
the nhabiitantsere
ble tio pleak panish.
It is
this:
imited umber hatwe have n
mindwhenwe speak
of
the
civilizingnfluencef the
Spianiards in he Filipinols.
The
influencef the Spaniards was
furtherimfitedy the
fact that
they
never
thoroughly
mastered he country. In
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98
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE
many
parts,
nstead
f
building
oads
that
would
penetrate
he
interior
nd
open the
lurking
places
of
the
brigands,
hey
were satisfiedo remainon thedefensive. Failing to make
their
force
recognized
verywhere,
he ruder nhabitants
f
the
unexplored
nd
unconquered
egions
acquired
a
certain
contempt
or
the
civilized
man,
regarding
im as
a weakling
and as
consequently
nworthy
f imitation;
oirhe first
tep
necessary
o
make
thebarbarialn
ccept
he
deas
of
civilization
is to
let
himknow
that
the civilized
man
is his
superior
n
physical orce. To smite hebarbarianwith helavy and is
sometimes
he
surest
way
to
liberalize
his mind.
This
the
Spaniards
did
not always,
o
when
t
ought
o have
been
done,
and conisequently
ihere
emained,
fter
enturies'
f
nominal
control,
vast regions
where
neither
he
Spaniards
nor
the
civilization
hich
hey
represented
ere
respected,
nd
where
there
was
no.disposition
o
accept
heir
deas.
Furthermore,hefrequenteparturef theSpaniardsfrom
the economic
ractices
if
modern
urope
in
dealing
with
the
Filipinos
delayed
the acceptance
of
those
ideas
which
con-
stitute
he basis
of modern
ociety.
In the slands
much
was
done under
hel paniards
y
forced
abor
t a timewhen
prac-
tically
ll laborers
n Europe
were
free
nd
received
wages.
Considering
herelations
f the wo,
eoples
o one another,
t
was inevitablehattheFilipinoshould regardthe Spaniards
as his
teachers,
ut what
he
gained
from'
he object
lesson
in
this
case
was
knowledge
lf
state
oif
hings
hat
was
not
characteristically
uropean,
ut
rather
haracteristically
rien-
tal.
But in the
course
olf ime
new age
dawneld.
The cru-
sading
spirit
became
antiquated;
feudalism
urvived
nly
as
a
relicof
a
receding ast,
t'he nion
of
ecclesiastical
nd poli-
tical functionsn a singlebodywas repudiated; nd it was
clearly
een thatSpain,
which
had stood
forthese
hings,
ad
finished
hermission.
In
the
fact
hat
Splain's
mission
s
a coloinizer
nd
a
ruler
of
inferior aces
is
ended,
nd
that thetasks
she
had
under-
taken have
fallen
toi
other
nations,
we
observe
one
of the
familiar
ncidents
n
the
development
f civilization.
In
the
course f intellectualrogresst is notunusual
for
one person
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
99
to
take
up
and
carry
forward
o a
higher
form
r
to
a
more
complete
tage
an
invention ir ,
theory
f
a
predecessor.
In
the history tfmaterial chievements,othings more ommon
than to
find
ne
company
f
men
takingup
and
fitishing
n
undertaking
egun
by
others. Anid s
we
grasp
within
ur
view the social
progress
f the
woirld,
nothing
s
more
coin-
sistentwithreason nd historical
act han
he dea, hat
great
national
ndertakings
ay
be
oiriginated
y
one
natioinnd
sub-
seque:ntly
e taken
up
and carried
o a
higher
tage
of
ad-
vancement y anothernation; or, in otherwoirds,hatone
natioin
makes oine
contributiono,
civilization
while
another
nation
makes
quite
a
different
ontribution.
And
thus,
lthoughwe
recognize
he zeal and
heroism
is-
played
by
the
Spaniards
in
discovery
nd
exploration,
nd
keep
in
mind
theirhigh
putrposeoi
bring o,the heathen n
uncorrupted aith, t
may be
reasonably
xpected
hat,with
less of thecrusade r'spirit, ut withmiolreractical ense, he
newer
nation
will
carry
Spain's
unfinis'hed
ork
in
the Far
East
to
a
conclusion
which
the
stereotyped
onservatismf
the older
nation
made
t
impossible orher
to
reach.
But it
is
frequently
ffirmed
hatthe
people
of
the United
States are
new
to
questions
relating
o
the
governmnentlf
dependencies.
T,hetruth
s,
however, hat
more
than a cen-
tury go they advery ositivedeas as to, owcertainolonies
should be
governed.
This
was, in
fact,the
first
ubjecton
which
hey
held
a common
pinion.
A
little
ateir, fter
he
several tates
had
ceded
to
the
federal
overnmentheir
west-
ern
lands,
they
had an
opportunityo put
their
deas
into
practice.
In
the
continental
erritoriesf the
United States it was
expected hattheaborliginalnhabitants ould disappear nd
no
account
was takenof
themn
n
forminghe
organic aws of
the
Territories.
But
n Poirto
ico
and
the
Philippinest
could
not be
presumed
hat
hey
would
dis'appear,nid
hey
ouldnot
be
ignoired.
n
the
ontinental
erritories
he
government
as
formnied
or
the
descendentsf
Europelans;
n
the
Philippinies
it
was made
primarilyoir
ilipinos,
ut t
the ame
time t
had
to be so ordered s notto do violence o, heintelrestsf the
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IOO PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
other nhabitants.
t had
ttol
e oirdered, oreo'ver,
n
such
form
hat t
would not do violence ot hel undamental
rin-
cipleson which his republicwas established. The two,most
excellentmoldels;,ofuropeanrule
over dependencies
eopled
principally y
races n a lower stage of civilization
we'refur-
nishedby the
colonial possessions,
f
England
and Holland.
But therewere variousi easons
why neither he
English nor
the Dutch policy could be exactly
followed.
The Filipliniols
are
Christians,,
n,d smallpart,
ut
a
dominant
art, if hem,
have been ot certain xtent uropeanized ndierhe nfluence
of
the Spania;rds.
As a necessary eisult f their
onversion
to Christianity
nd their ssociationwith,
uropelans,
heyhad
certain
aspirations
hat
distinguished
hem
froim he
non-
Christian ranches f
their
ace.
A certain
nfus,ionf
Euro-
pean blood,moire-over,mphasized
he
results,
lf
heEuropean-
izing reform.
The people of the Philippineswere,
therefore,
in a polsitionwherea decentrelgard or their mbition,nd
aohievemrents
ade
it
advisable o' carry
ut
siomre
ther han
the
repressive olicy
hat
had
characterizedhe
Dutch
admin-
i'stration f Java.
The cointrastetween
he conditions,if
India and thePhilippineslands,
ndia's,
vast population,
er
rich and polwerful
ativeprinces,
eirndigenous ivilization,
with
ts
wealth f
literaturend
traiditions
nd
social
institu-
tions,miadet undes,irableol mitatetrictlynthePhilippines
the policy
hathas been foundnecessary
ni ndia.
The
prolb-
len,
presented
y the conditions
n,
hei hilippineswas simpler
than the Indian
problem,
nd the difficulties
hat
had
tolbe
overcomneros,e
rom differentource.
The
difficulties
n-
countered y
the
English
in India
arose'
n
large
part
from
the
complexity
nd
rigi,dity
lf henative ndian,
oiciety.
The
difficultiesncountered y theAmiericans
ni
the Philippines
arose
argely
rom hechaotic
ondition lf
ilipino'
ociety,
he
absence
of soicial
rganizations,
f a
high grade
and
the lack
of traditions
lf rder. The
casels
weire
ifferentnd
re'quired
different
m:ethsolds
lf treatmient.
There were better reasons
foir
uilding
n
Spanish,
olundationis
han) or
boirrowingsys-
temfrom
ither
Java or
Inidia.
Under
the actual
polliticlalrganizatioin
f the
Philippine
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AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
I0I
Islands the government
f the United
States is the
source
of power
exercised
by
the
celntral,ir
nsular,government.
Immediatelyfter heAmerican rmy andedthe military u-
thoritiers
ook possession f
the civil
offices
ithin
heir
ines,
collected hej nternal
evenue
axes and
customs
duties,
nd
executed
uch laws
relating o
civil
affairs
s were
valid
at
theclotse ,f
panish
rule. As commander-in-chief,f he
rmy
the
President
olok
tep,s,oenlarge bhe
cope
of the civil
offices
and to -bring he
islands under
civil
authority
s fast as the
inhabitantsouldbe pacified. To thisend,and acting tillas
head oif he army
without
pecial
congressional
authorization,
he
appointed he
United
StatelsPhilippine
Commission,
n
March, 900,
"
tol
ontinue
nd pierfect
hework
f
organizing
and
establis;hlingivil
go'vernmelnt
lreadycommenced
y
the
military
uthorities."
After
hefirst
,f
eptember,
900,
this
commission
aid
authority o
exercise, ubject
to,the
Presi-
dent'sapproval, egislative lowern thet hilippine slands.
This
power
pirior o this
date had beenheld
by
the
military
governor. It
included "the
making
oif
rules,
and or-
derts
aving
the
effect
f
law,
foir
he
raising
of revenue
by
taxes,
customs
uties,
nd
impo,sts,;
he
appropriation
nd
expendituref
public
funds olf he
islands;
the
establishment
of an
educational
ystem
hroughout
he
islands;
tihe
stab-
lishment f a system o secure an efficientivil service; the
organization
nd
establishment
lf
ourts;
he,o
ganization
nd
establishmentf
municipal
n'd
departmental
overnments,
antd
ll
other
matters if civil
naturefor
which
he military
governor
was formerly
ompetent
o'
provide
byrules oir
ir-
ders
of a
legislative
character."
Tihe
next
step
in
carrying
ut the
policy olf
he United States
with
respect
o the
Philippineslands,was that n whichthe
President
directed
affairs,
not as the
commiander-in-chieof
if
the
army,
but
as authoiraized
y
definite
ongressional action.
The
action taken
y
Congress n this
matteir
as
essentiallyhe
same
action
as
thiatwhich had
beeen aken
in the case of
Louisiana.
By a law
approved
n
October,803,
itwas pros
vided
that,
until
Congreisshould
have made
provision or a
temporary
overnment,
ll
the
military,
livil, nd
judicial
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102
PROCEEDINGS
OF
THE
powers
then
exercised
by
the
officers
f the
government
f
Louisiana
should
be
vested n
such
person
or
persons
and
shouldbe exercised n suchmanner s thePresident f the
United
States
might
direct.
The language
of
this
act
of
1803
was
repeated
n
a
law
passed
ninety-eight
ears
later,
approved
March
2,
i9OI,
giving
the
President
ongressional
authority
for
the
establishment
f
civil
government
nd
for
maintaining
nd proitecting
he inhabitants
f
the
Philippine
Islands
in
the
free
njoyment
f
their
iberty,
rosperity
nd
religion." Thiswas theSploonermendmento, hearmy p-
propriation
ill
for
902.
By
it
Congress,
atified
he
estab-
lished
uthority,
ut
at
the
same
time
mposed
ertain
estric-
tions,
particularly
ith
reference
o
granting
ranchises.
The
next
phatse
,f
he
insular
government
as
introduced
by
the
change
effecteld uly
4,
I90I,
through
which
the
executive
uthority
reviously
xerted
by
the
military
ov-
ernor n thePhilippineswas transferredo a civilgovernor.
A
little
ater
four
executive
departments
ere
created:
the
departments
f
the
interior,
f commerce
nd
police,
of
finance
and
justice;
and
of
public
nstruction.
The president
f
the
commission
aving
become
hecivilgovernor,
he
four
other
original
members
lf
he
commission
ere
appointed,
with
he
title
f
secretary,
o
be theheads
of the
four xecutive
epart-
ments. The governor nd the four secretariesontinued o
act as
members
f the
commission,
hich
was
at
this
time
enlarged
by
the
addition
of
three
Filipinos,
nd
one
of
the
secretaries
was appointed
ice
golvernor.
The
vice
governor
may
act
as
civil
governor
whenever
the civil governor
is
in-
capacitated
y
illness,
ircertifies
hat
his
temporary
bsence
from
the
seat
of
government
will make
it
necessary
for
the
vice governorto' performthe duties,of the civil governor.
Under
the several ecretaries
re
grouped
he
various.
ureaus
thro,ugh
hich
the
work
oif
the
departments,
s
carried
on.
The
ihead
f each bureau
n
a
department
eports
o
the
head
of
the
department
o which
he
belongs.
The
present
overnment
husembraceis
civilgovernor
nd
four
ecretaries
ho,
with
he three
Filipino'
menbers
f
the
commission,onstitutehe entral egislature.
To
these
ffices
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AMERICAN POLITICAL
SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
103
may
be
addeid
the
office lf
the
Attoirney-general
nd the
system f thecourts
mnbracingheSupreme
Court, he
various
courtsof first nstance,and the local courts such as t;hemuni-
cipal
courts nd the
courts
lf
he
justices
of
thepeace.
In most ases. he upremeCourt
,f he
Philippines,as
final
authority,
ut there
are
cases,
that
may
be
carried to
the
Supreme
Court
of
the
United States.
These are all
actions,
cases, causes, and proceedings
n
which the
constitutionr
any stattute,
reaty,itle, ight r
privilege lf heUnited
States
is involved, ircauses, n whichthe value in 'controversyx-
ceeds twenty-fivehousand
dolla.rs,,
r in
which the title
oir
possession
if
eal
esta,te,
xceeding
n
value
the
sum
olf
wenty-
five
housand ollars
s
involved r'
broughtnto
question.
In
establishing ocal
governments,,
he
boundaries f
the
ancient
ueblos,,
r
townships, ere
recognized
s
determining
the territoriesf
the new
municipalities,.
hhe
ncientnames
wereretained,ndthepublic ropertyftheoldpluebloisassed
to
the new organization.
In
the
municipalities,r townships,
the
first
teps
were takentowardsthe establishmentif
ocal
self-government.
he
president,
he
vice-president,
nd
the
members f the
municipal
ouncil
are
elected. But in
view
of
the 'limited
knowledge
and
experience
of
the bulk
of
the
inhabitants,t was found o be
expedierit
o confine he
privi-
lege of voting,nthebeginning,o a comiparativelyew per-
sons.
It
was
confinedo thosewho
had
held
ome
one of the
principal
municipal
ffices
rioir
o the Amnerican
ccupation,
thosewho
had
property
alued
at
five
hundred
esos,
or
who
paidtaxes to
the
amount f
thirty esos,and
those
who could
read,write,
nd
speak English
or Spanish. It
mighthappen
that
many
f
those
who
had
property
orth
ive
hundred
esos
or who had previously een municipal fficers,ould neither
read
nor
write panishoir nglish.
But it
was heldthat heir
-ability
o accumulate
roperty,
r
their
previous xperiencen
local
government ould make
t
safe o
confer
ponthem, he
privilege of
voting for
municipal officers. By granting
this
privilege
to, the
imitednumber
olf
persons
who,had the quali-
fications
equired,
n
opportunity
as
given
to the
people to
acquire
he
first
lementsif the
kno?wledge
ecessary
o
enable
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I04 PROCEEDINGS OF THE
themto govern themiselves. his provis,ion-a's in marked
contrastwith'the aw establishedn Poirtot ico and Hawaii,
which onferredhehighest rivilegesfcitizenshiplikeupon
thefit nd theunfit.By this ction
respeiting
orto, ico, nd
Hawaii the authorities hrew way whatever nfluence
hey
might
ave exerted
y holding ut
this;
rivilege s an induce-
ment
o
the
people
to make themselves
orthy
o
participate
in
the
local government. By thus bringing into the govern-
ment vast masss
f
uncontrollablegnorance, he new admin-
istrations n those islands began in confusion n'd with the
prospect if
chievemnents
ihat ould not constitute favorable
recommendationf republicanism. f moire ilipino's cquire
and
holdpropertyr acquire knowledge lf nglishor Span-
ish, this will inidicate certain ocial improvementhat, n
accordan'ce ith the law regulating he suffrage, ill be fol-
lowed by an extension ,fpoliticalright's o' otherpersons;
but fno such mprorvementhallbe observablehewelfare f
the local
communities ill
not be
endangered y
the
presence
and
authoritative
nterferencef
ignorant
nd shiftless ili-
pinos n public ffairs.
Like many of the present ownships lfNeiwEngland,the
pueblo's
n,
he
Philippines
ifteno'ntainmoire
hanone
village,
but
each
oif
hese
villages,
r
barrio,s,,
ass certain
erritory
which s recognizeds pertainingo it,andthesum' 'fall the
tracts f
territoryertaining
o' th'e everalbarrioscoincides
with,
o'r s the same
as,
the
territory
if
he
pueblo'
'r
town-
ship.
Each barrio
s in
the imm;ediate
iharge
f
a
member
of the
to'wn-
ouncil,
ut tihe
ownship'
nd'not
thebarrio'
s
the
primary olitical
unit. Tihe
to,wn'
s
the
lowest
distinct
ov-
ernmnental
roup';
for
the
barrio'
s
simply
fraction
f
the
pueblo, r toiwn.
Midway
between.
he
muunicipalovernment
n'd
the central
government
f
the
archipelago'
tands'
h'e
government
if
he
several
provinces.
When
the
provinces,
'ne
aftfr
another
were
turned rom
war
to
penalce,
t
became
ecessary
ol
have
t
hand
a foir of
go'venment
nider
which'
heymight
be
oir-
ganized.
This
formi
was
furnished
y
the
generalprovincial
government
ct
adopted
n
February,
9OI.
In
accordance
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
I05
with
his
ct theprovincial overnmentonsists
f
five fficers.
These
are a
governor,
supervisor, treasurer,
n
attorney,
and a secretary.The governor,he supervisor,nd thetreas-
urer
f
theprovince
makeup
theprovincial
oard. The
attor-
ney and
the secretary
re not members
f the
board,
but
perform heirproper
functions
n coinnectionilth
he affairs
of
the
provincial
overnment.
The governtor
n
the
first
n-
stance,
hat s to
say
on
theorganization
f the
provincial ov-
ernment, as appointed y the
commission;
aterhe was elected
bya provincialssembly, r electoral ollege, omposed fthe
members
f
the town
councils f the
organized
municipalities
of
the
province.
It
is
expected
hat
ordinarily he provincial
governor
will be a Filipino,
lthough
t the organization
f
the everal rovinces
number
f the ppointed
overnors
ere
Americans,
nd some Americans
were
elected ytheprovincial
assemblies
t the
expiration
f the termn
f appointment,
till,
under normal onditionf affairs,tmaybe expectedhat he
governors
f
provinces
will
be
Filipinois.
The supervisor
s
required o be a
civil engineer,
oir
pon him devolves
the
business
of
buildingroads
and
bridges
and the otherpublic
works
f
the
province.
But thesupervisornd
the treasurer
are
in
the
classified
ivil ervice,
nd it is expected
hat
forthe
present
until properly ualified
ngineers
ppear
among the
Filipinos heywillusuallybeAmericans.
After he
general
proivincial
aw had been
formed mbrac-
ing
the
general utlines
f a provincial
overnment,
herere-
mainedthe
task
of
applying
t
to
the sleveral rovinces,
with
such modifications
s
mnighte
needed
n
the
differenatircum-
stances.
This task
ma;de
necessary journey
o
each of the
provinces,
for
the purpose
of
finding
out by
inquiry
and dis'-
cussionwith
representativels
f
the
people
n
a
public
ssembly
whatmodificationsif hegeneral aw wereneededto adapt
it to the province
n
question.
Inquiry
was
also
made
as
to what
alaries
ught
o
be
paid
to
the
provincial
fficers,
nd
what
imits
lught
o be
fixed or heother
rovincial
xpenses.
The
provincial
ssembly
hatwas
co'nsultedbout
hese
matters
was
composed
of
delegates
from
the
several towns of
the
province. The
delegates
were
usually
the
presidents
if
the
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io6 PROCEEDINGS OF
THE
towns
nd the
members
f the town ouncils. They were
the
most cultivated
art of their
respective ommunities.
Of the fiveprovincial officers nly the governor is elected;
the others re
appointed.
The
governor
s electedby an as-
smbly
composed
f the members f
the town councils lf he
province.
By providing hat heofficial ead of the
province
shall be
electedby a system f indirect lection esting n
the
limited
uffragestablishedn themunicipal ode, t is
thought
that
he
peoplewill
be
secured certain
articipation
n
public
affairs,nd that hestabilitynd wise conduct f the govern-
ment
will
not be
endangered y
the
oo
immediatenterference
of the untrained
art
of
the
population.
Placed
in
intimate
connection
with the centralgovernment
y the fact that
the
bul,k
f
its
officersre
appointed,
he
provincial rganization
is in a position o serve s an efficient
dministrativegentof
the
central
uthority,
s well as to fulfillts
functions
s
a
purelyocalgovernment.
It maybe
seenfrom he tatementslreadymiade hat, nder
the
present o-vernmental
rganization,
here
re two groups f
elected fficers.
The first
roup
embraces
he
municipal
ffi-
cers,who
are
chosen t
large by the qualified lectors f
the
municipality.
The second
group
of elected fficersmbraces
the
governors
f
the several
provinces,who
are
elected
by
provincial ssemblies omposed f themembers f the town
'councils f
the various towns
n
the several
prolvinces.
The
second
lection hus
depends
n the
first,
nd
thefirst
s
made
by
a restricted
ist
of voterswho
must
i'ther ave
property
o
thevalue of
fivehundred esos
or
pay at least thirty esos
of
regularlystablishedaxes,or be able
to read,write, nd
speak
Spanish
or
English,
or
have
held a
municipal
ffice
nder
Spanishrule. These qualificationsre establishedby aw to
be the
qualifications
f
the electionswho
shall
choose
the
memnbers
f the
proposedPhilippine
ssembly
hat
is
to
be
convened
nd
organized wo years after he
completion
nd
publication
f the census
recently
aken.
A
government
or
the
Philippine
slands has thu'sbeen es-
tablished,
nd all
but
a
few
stragglers
ave
returned
o
the
occupations
f
peace.
The
stragglers
re
proiducts
f
the
re-
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
I07
bellion
gainst
Spain
and
the
UnitedStates,
who
fancy
hat
n
war
they earned he
trick
f living
without
work
at the ex-
pense of theirneighboirs.Theyare brigands, nd, in terms
applied to our evil-doers,would
be
described s a cross be-
tween
sneak-thiefnd
a footpad.
In
view of the
awlessness
that ppears o
be increasingn thiscountry,t may be safely
affirmedhatbrigandage
s
less ominous
n
thePhilippines
han
in the United States. The Philippine
rigands re the
half-
civilizedelement's f the population.
ThIey
have no strong
traditions f social order. Theyhave had no experience o
teach them respect
foir aw.
They
have lived unider
systemthat was
monarchialfromt-op o bottom.
What-
ever obedience
they have renderedhas, beenr
endered
o
the
command f
a personal uperior. The new regime
ub-
stitutes
aw for
the
ersioinal
uler. The
change
s
a
little
oo
suddenfor he
ordinary ilipino, articularly
orthe Filipino
withan extravagantdea olf iberty. He has none of that
trainingwhich
nables
he
Anglo-Saxon
o
feel
oyalty
o
the
impersonal tate, nd render bedience
o i'ts mpersonal
e-
crees. It i's
only
natural, herefore,
hatunder hese circum-
stances he gnorant nd vicious
fragmentsf the population
should manifest he characteristics
f barbarism
ather
han
those of civilization.
But
there s no
such excuse
for the
Americanbrigands, hose wlho re breakingdown our jails,
defying
he
uthorityf courts,
nd toirturingheir ellows..We
cannot ven
charge hese cts of awlesisness
o recentmmigra-
tion
from
he
ower
ranksof Europeannations, or
the
mo'bs
of
jail-breakers,
ynchers,nd the
bands of highwaymenre
predominantlyf American tock.
They are born and
bred
under he
free
nstitutionsf the and
hey re disgracing.
The Filipino' rigandmayhavebee encouraged ytheutter-
ances
n
this ountry
hathelped o keep
thebelated nsurrecto's
going,
but
this nfluencen him as
probably eenve'ry
light;
for
he
is not
politician,
ut simply plain robber, nd
hasno
aspirations igher
han
successful lundering. Filipino
bri-
gandage
does
not,however, resent
ny seriousdanger ither
to the ivesor
property
f Americans.
EvenFilipinobrigandage as had its uses. It has furnished
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io8 PROCEEDINGS OF
THE
thePhilippine overnmentn opportunityo test hereliability
of its constaibularyr local mililtia.
This arm olf he govern-
ment s composed f enlisted ilipinos nderAmerican fficers.
It
embraces
etween
ive
housand
nd six thousand
men,
who
are distributedhroughouthe provinces. The presence f
lawless stragglersn the coun'tryave
thle onstabularyome-
thing o do immediatelyn its organizatilon,
hichmade strict
discipline ecessary nd posisible.
Five thousand rmed dlers
scattered hroughout
he
slands,without
ny serious. ccupa-
tion, mightveryreadilyhave becomedemoralized. But by
havingoccupation, heofficers ave beenl
ble to hold them o
strict
discipline,
nd thus selt high standard
for the
whole
force.
This standard nce
fixed
becomes
part
of the
tradi-
tion of
the
constabulary,
nd
may
withoiutreat difficultye
maintained.
At
first
doubts were
entertained y certain persons as
to the advisability f armingso many natives,, ut their
conduct
has been
generally
uch
as
to
leave
no
apparent
ground for these doubts. They have been loyal to
their
officers
nd
to the
government.They
have
been
fficient-
for
he
particular
ask
n
hand
quti,te
s
efficients
the
Ameri-
can soldiers. The
American oldier s, to
a certain xtent
handicapped.s
a
brigand-hunter,
n
thathe
does notknow
he
tricks nd habitsof th'eFilipinothief. The attempts hich
the Americans re
making
o eliminate
rigandage
s
a
de-
parture
rom
he
Spanish regime.
The
Spaniards
winked
t
miany hings,
nd
among
others the
presence
of
bands
of
thieves
n
certain enters f lawlessness.
From
thesecenters
whole
districtsbecame nfected.
The
proces,s
arried
on
by
the
constabulary
s
a
cleaning-up,
rocess,
nd
promises
o
leave
the islands,for thefirst ime n theirhistory, ree from he
ban'ds; f
thieves
hat
have
always
been
more o'r ess,
f
a
hin-
drance o
prosperity.
Like Mexico, nd
otheir
ormer olonies f
Spain,
he
Philip-
pines
had
not adopted the
land-tax as a means
of
raising
revenue.
This.
was
consistent
ith
the
other
featu'resf
the
system
f taxation
prevailing
n
the
slands,
n
that
t favored
the richan'dburdened hepoor. Speaking generally, nder
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AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. 109
the old system f taxation,whatever rticles
were owned or
exclusively
sed
by
therichhad a
lighter ax
than
hoise wned
or exclusivelysedby thepoor. Champagne,o, akea single
illustration,ore a lighter ax thanl heap wine.
In Mexico
for
long period
he
government as practically
n
oligarchy,
composed n large partof lanidowners,ho, ither
etermined
whiat
he taxes sholuld e oirhad sufficientnfluenceo
prevent
the imposition
f a tax
on
land.
In
the
Philippines, lson,
limited lass of relatively ich men had
txerte d n the gov-
ernment hatevernfluence ad been exerted ythepeopleor
by
thosenot
actually
n
official
o'sition s,
nd it
s,eemedo
them
wise,
or at
least
advantageous,
o
use
wha?tever
ower they
had to cautse ny tax levied to be placed
where
it
would
burden hem east.
On
one
occasion,
t a
publicmeeting
n
one
of the
provinces,
dvice
was siought
s to
the best
methods
of
increasing
he
revenue,
nid he deliberate
lan
proploisedy
some of thespeakerswas thatthegovernmen'thould evy a
tax on the proletariat. The Filipino's ad learned
heir esson
from he old
regime.
In vivewf thi;s tate, lf
hings,
t
becamie vident n the be-
ginning hat t would be necessary o,make a
complete
efor-
mation
of the
system
f
taxation,
nd that
this,
efo,rmation
would
have
to concern
tself
both
w,ith
he internal
evenue
taxes and the customs,uties. In makingthe chang,es e-
quired,
t
was proposed
hait
he
new
system
hould
t leastnot
bear
more
heavily
in
the
pooir
han on the rich.
The
prin-
cipleadopted ppears o
us,
o carry
wiltht iits,
wn'
dvocacy,
but t
was not so
clear
to,
hose
who
had
inherited
heir
deas
of
financial
olicy
from
pain.
The excuse or
justification
or
the
new tariff
aw was
the
need of an adequate revenue forthe maintenance of the gov-
ernment.
The
cedula
tax.,
oir
grad'uate4ld
oll-tax,
had
been
abolished,
no
land-4ax
ha,
been
impolsed,
nd
the internal
revenue
ax
brought nly
imi'ted eturns. As,
a colnsequence
of
years
of
rebellion,
he trade and
the
industries,
f
the
smaller
towns
in
so far
as the smaller
towns ever had
any industries,
ere
either
diso'rganized
r
destroyed.
The
contributions ade for the support if he rebellion,whether
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IIO
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
free or foirced,
ad impolverished
large
number
of
the
inhabitants
f the provinces,
nd the only
effective ource
of an adequate revenue, t the beginning f the Ameri-
can
occupation, as
thecustoms
uties. The
duties,
herefore,
which
wereestablished y tihe
iew ariff
aw were established
primarily
or revenue. The
ildeaof
protectilonas
only
in-
cidentallyonsidered.
There
weare,
n
fatt,
ery
ew ndustries
to
protect
hit
had niot dequateprotection
n the
conditions
underwhich
hey
xisted.
In making
hetariffaw, then, nly
a fewobjectsw'ere eptdistinctlynminid. In thefirst laice,
it walsdesigned o
yield respectaible
evenue.
In the second
place,
t was prioposed
hat t
shbuld
not
be burdenisome
othe
trade r
unduly aisle
heprice
f articles o, he consumers.
In
thethird
lace,
t was planned o, e easy
of execution,
o,
hat
collectionsmighlt
e miade
nidert with he least
possible
x-
pensie
nd
with
he
e'astpossible
iabilityo fraud.
The ends
aimed at bythe makerts.f the law have beenfairlywell at-
tained.
It has
yielded
respectable evernue.
hat the law
migh1t
ot be burdensome
o' trade or
inicreasenduly
con-
sun;er'sprices.,t
was designed
oi
make the average rate
on
impoirtsbouttwenty-one
0r
wenty-two
er cent. f theeir
eal
value.
Sinice he
duty
s
primarily
spiecificiuty,
this
ate,
x-
presisied
n
terms
f an ad valorem ulty,
ill
naturally ary
s
the goods importedre of high or low gradein th'eir lass.
Whenever
the
speiific duty
is the same
on
cheaper
and
dearer
goods,
he,
earer oolds
ave
an
obvious
dvantage
n
iMpoTrta-
tion.
Bu5t
n
all
cases
whe're
lasses re distinctly
ecognizable,
each
class has itis istinct
pecific uty.
The
duty
was
made
primarily
pelcific,
ecause uch duity
maybe
more' iasily
evied
and
collect
d
than
an ad vazlorem uty,
nd
it is
exempt
rom
the iabilityo,fraud hroughndervaluationir vervaluation.
Recognizing
henecessarynaccura;cy
lf
'systern
nvolving
only pecific
uties, rovision
s
made
n
many
nstances
or
re-
sorting
o
an
ad
valorer duty
s a
corrective,
f
poissible
ases
of
injustice.
In
certain
aisc
where
he
rateis
nder the ew law
are
the
same
or
less than
n'der
he
old
law,
s)ome
mporters
ho'
have
had experielnceithbotihawsfind he new awis more evere
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AMERICAN POLITICAL
SCIENCE ASSOCIATION.
I I
I
than
he
old,
on,
ccount
if ts
more
rigorous
xecution. From
their
point
of
view
a
law imposing
higher
ate of
duties
s
more convenientn practice hana law imposing low rate,
provided the
law impolsing the higher duties can be made
easy
by gifts
nd
bribes. Better high
tariff
withgratificacionees
than low
tariffhat s carried ut
with igid nd unsympathe-
tic honesty.
Not
ithe
east
mportant
atter f
poilicy
onnected ith
he
affairs f
business hathas engaged heattentionf the
Philip-
pinegovernments the forest f the islanids, nd regulations
for heir
are and economic se.
In olrder
hat hemagnificent
o'rests,if hleslands.might ot
be
suddenly nd irretrievably
estroyed,
nd that
t
the
same
time hey
might e renderederviceable,heywere ommittedo
the
dministrationnd
supervision.
if bureau
f
foirestry.
he
lands
of the
forest ellongn very argepart o, he
government,
and for this, easoin heir control s in thelhands, f an authority
thlatmay deal
witih
hem,
reely
ithout ecotmingntangled
n
the meshes,lf
ndividual
ights.
In
thepolicy
dopted
with
referenceotthefo,refsCts,wo
or
three
points
re
conspiwcuous.
he first f tihesie
s,
that foir-
ests
are
not
sold
to the individual persons oir
oirpotrations
who
have only
the single nterest f
denuding he landsi n which
they tand. The second if hese ointss,that hegovernment
in
retalining
the
and
necelssarily
etain'shepotwero'
determine
what
rees
maybe felled nd whatmiust e left
tandingwithout
injury.
The thirdpoint
is,
that the
person
whio'receives a per-
mit
to
cut
designated
reesmust
pay
to'
he'
overnment
cer-
tain
amoutnt
er
cubic
fo'ot
f
the trees
elled,
his, mount
vary-
ing according o' the quality f th'e
imber
n
question.
This
mean's
that h'ePhilippine Governmlenitsells the imber tanding,
at a
price
ixed
cco'rdingo.
ts
quality,
nd retains
he
owner-
shi,p if the
lanid nd controls n'd cares fo'r
ll subsequent
growths. By thismethodt
is
expected hat
the evastationf
the
forests
will
be
averteld. At
the,
ame tine dealer's
n
tim-
beir
will
be
able to'
ecure t
reasonable
ateishe reetse'st uited
to
their
punrpoises,
butundeir he direction' f
the
proper
authori-
tiesas to'
what
mmaiturereies
ust e eft tanding.
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II2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE
If
one
were
o
attemnipt
o
make
comprehensive
tatemnt f
the economic tatus
oif
he
Philippine
slands, t
would not be
difficulto form fairlyust estimiatef the severalmaterial
elemrnts. Buta considerable ifficultyould irise
n
attempt-
ing tp estimate he labor foirce lf he islands as,
a
necessary
factor
n
the
general
tatemnent.
n
this
point
he
government
has manifestedn uncertainnd doubtful olicy.
It is
uncer-
tainbecaulse
s
yetno one
knows
what
s
to be
theresult lf he
awakening f
the
Filipinois
ut
of
their mediaevalism.
The
builkif hepopulations compoisedfpersonswho either ulti-
vate
ndependently
heir
mall
holldings
r
are
attached o, ther
persons in a tradlitional relation not greatly
unlike that
of
feudal
dependents.
The partof thepopulation
hat
s
neither
in
tihe
osition
olf nddivildualuitiviators
or
attached
o
any
housiehoildr estate s smnall,nd consequentlyhenumber
f
laborers
ctually
vailable
for
a
new undertaking
s limited.
Persions hohave been ccustomedogaintheirivinigna cer-
tain
way
cannotbe
expected
o
abandfon
heir ncient
habits,
the ir
raditional
ependence
t
maybe, immediately
n
the
Ap-
pearance
f
a
person
ir
omplanysking
for
heir
erivces.
In
view
of
ithi-sact,
t is
probable
hat
thosewho
present
hem-
selves t the
first
all under he
new
dman;,d
re
only part
of
the
supply
f
labor which the
community
n
question
may
fur-
nishwhen t shall haveadjusted tseif o, he newconditions.
It w-ill hereforee impossibleo know he abor
capabilities if
the Philippine Islands until they shall have acquired more olf
thecharacteristicsif
he ndustirial
ommunities
f
Europe
and
America.
But
ithere
s
la
strongprobability
hat he
Filipino
labor
foirce ill
ncrease s
the enseoif ndividual
ndependence
increases
andmore
men break
away from heir
positions f
semi-depeidenten their mployers. But thismovementlf he
Filipino towards
the
polsition
lf the American
aborerwill
probably e slow, anid
n
the mean tiTne here
ught to be a
demaniidormoorelabolrershan are at present
vailable. To
this
point
t
is
safe
and
easy
going. Whiat
ies
beyond s a
rough
road
oif
dliverse
pinions.
As it
regards
he
continental
erritory
f the
Uniited tates,
it s
notdifficulto frame
more r
esis
onviinicing
rgumentn
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
II3
support f
the
policy nvolved
n the
aw
excluding
hinese
n
the
ground
hat
he
nconveniencef
getting.
ich
more
lowly
is not to be comparedwith the inconvenience f having another
race problem n our hands. But
wheti
e
inquiry
ellatess
o
trhe
hilippine sltands
heconclusio thiat
pplies:
-ere oes
not
necessarilypply there.
Here
it
wouild
e
briniging
ogether
two
alien
races,
he
twbomost
positive
nid
trongest
aces
n
th,e
world,
that t
woul'dbe 'better
o
keep
apairt.
There
it
would
b, bringing
ogether,
ot
two' races,
but
twoi
kindred
pieoples,lfwho'semalgamationnatureeems
o
approve. But
whether
hey
enter
nto,
close
assIociationor
retnain
distinict
is
ncot matter f greatmomient.
he
undisputed
act
s,
that
thleires room for more
alaborers
n
the
Philippine
slands, o
redeem he
country
romi
hie
estlutslf
he*
eglect
t suffered
in war, and to,
make available
ts
vaslt lndeelopedresources.
If
thoret
ereonly
imited
esiources,theweakermight
got o
the wall, but the resources re, dequlate o the suppoirtf a
population tf ixty
millions.
TIhe addition, herefore,
lf
a
fejw undrod th'ousaand
hinesewould
drive
nohboldy
o tihe
wall,
but bymaking he slan4ds ore
pro,duictive,
ould
ameliorate
thle
condition
of
the
whiolle ncreased population.
If
un der
utelage n4dhefoircelf xamrpleheFilipino'hows
himrsellfwilling nd
skillfulworker, nd the relsouwrclslf he
island'sare so completely sed as to,detmand o
moTre
aborers,
the
dooTr
ay be as,
easily
clio'sed
gain'sit
he
Chinese
fter
ive
or
ten
years
as
now. The
painful
factniow
s, t hat
aboir
s
needed nid
s
not
to
be
had.
Hithlertol,
n this
continent,
e harwestab,lished
overnments
in
which hiolse
hio
madethe aws.have
had
the
ame
deas,
n-
stincts nd traditio'n ss the
boidy
'f
he
people
foir
whom he
laws were miade. Onilymembnersf our race have been in-
volved.
In
thenew
underPtaking
e ihave
ougoht
o,
ring
nto
political co-operatilon
emberis
if
wo distinct
aces;
and
thoise
persons
who have
exp&Aed
uch
itnimdiate
esults
s
might
appear
n
dealing
with
branch
fEuropean
tock
have failed
to
take into account hemutually epielling oirce if
diverse
ratcialnheritances.
They have
faiiled
o estimate
roperly he
difficulty
he
sub'o'rdinate ace
is
destined to,
ncounter
n
com-
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II4
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
prehending he
idea anid
social principles f
the dominant
race,
and
also the
difficulty
,t
will xperience
n
ehanging
ts point f
viewwithrespect o governmentnd annullingomewhathe
force
of its anciento}cial
traditions.
An
important
eature lf
hegovernmental
olicy arried lut
in the
Philippiines
s thatwthichmbraces
he
system
f public
instruction.
The
system
s organized s 'the ureau f educa-
tion
under
he
Secretary
lf
ublic nstruction.
The imrmedi-
ate
administrationf
the affairs,
lf
hisbureau s
placed
n
the
handsof a general uperintendent,ihowas originallyssisted
by
ten
division
uperintendents.
he division
utiperinten
nts
reside
n
the
several
divisions.
Unider
he supervision (f he
general
uperintendent,
ach
division,
uperintendent
xercses
immediate ontrol
ver the.
tchioolslfhis division.
With the
increase
n
the
number
if eacheirsnd
the
expansion
f the
field,
the division
supeirintendents
ould
not
properly
perform
thewoirkxpected f them. Thenby an amendmentnacted
July
4,
I9OI,
the
number
f
division
uperintendents
as
in-
creased
frolm
en to
eighteen.
Under
this
organization
early
one
thtou-sand
eachers
romAmerica
were
appointed
nd as-
signetd
o
positions
n
different
larts
f
the
archipelago.
In
thiswork
f
placing
he
teacherswhere
her
weremo-st eeded
the
division
.uperintendents
endered ailutable
ssistance
o the
general uperintendent. heymade themselvesamiliarwith
the conditions f
their
ureiral
ivisions
ysystematic
nvesti-
gation
and
porsonal
nspection,
nd
were
autho(rizedo select
frnom
he teachers lready
ppointed,
ubjec
to
the approval
of the
general
uperintenident,
uch
teachers
s
seemned
o,
hem
best fitted
o establish
nd conduct
chools,
n
'the different
parts
f
their
evetral
ivislions.
In
the
course
f
timie
he
work
requiredf thedivision uperintendentsecame oogreat o be
successfullyerformed
y
them
without
ssistance.
The
n um-
ber
of tealchers
ials
reatly
ncreased,
nd the schools
were
scattered ver wider erritoiry.
t betame inally
vident hat
a
sufficientmount f
info'rmatioi
oncerning
heconditions
n
the
different
arts,
f
the islands
had
been
gathered
o
permit
the
making
if
definitend
final
rganization.
Accordingly
a bill waspresentedotheCotntnissoionith
he
view
of effect-
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AMERICAN
POLITICAL
SCIENCE
ASSOCIATION.
I
I
5
ing the
changes,
esired.
This,bill
became
law October
8,
I902.
This
law repealeldertainfeaturels
f the
previously
existing chool aw, and dividedthearchipelagonto, hirty-
six
school
divilsiuons.
he
several divisions,
xcept
n
a.
few
cases, were
m.alde
o, oincide
with he
prolvincels.
n
each of
these
divisions,
xcept
hose
orresponding
o
the
provinces
f
Benguet,
Lepanto-Bontoc,
Nueva
Vizcaya,
and
Paragua,
a
re-
gularly
appointed
division
supeirintendent
as
provided
for.
In
each of
the four rovinices
xcepted
t
was
provided
hat he
provincial oveirnorhouldact, with'outdditional ompensa-
tion, s
division.
uperintendent. h'isi
rrangement
s
justified
by
the
fact
that in
Beinguet,
eplanto-Bontoc,
nd Nueva
Vizcaya the
majority if
he
inhabitantsre
Igorrotes,
iving
in
a
semi-savage
tate)whileihe
provin.ce
f
Paragua emtbraces
a
largearea
of
the,
welsternslanids
nd contains
nly
limited
ain;d
cattered
opulation.
Assistance
n
carrying
in
he office
work of the division s providedforby autthorizingheap-
pointmentlf nle lerk
for elach
division
up,erfintendent.
n
addition o the
teacherss
ppointed
or he
municipalities
by
he
division
uperintendent,
hose, alaries,
re)
piaid
by
the
muni-
cipialities,
he
general
uperintendent
s
authorized o
keep
in
the service f the
nsular
olvernmnent
force f
one
thousand
trained
eacheirs or
the
primairychoolls
nd
stuch
dditional
trained eacheirss maybe necessaryoirheprovincialchools
of
secondary
nstruction.
In
providing
his
organization
nid
mphasizing
he
work o
be
done
through
t
there s
clearly
departure
rom,
he
policy
pursued
y
some of the
European
nations.
The
Javanese re
made
to
understanidhat
hejy
re
not
expected
o
have a,
arge
part
in
the
cultiviationf
the)
eople
dominating
hem. Few
opportunities
ave
been
provided
or
herm,
o
acquire he
train-
ingnecessaryo, inable,
hebem
oi
ccupymolre,
han very
imited
number lf
he
conomic
ositions
n the
dependency;
nd thus,
insteaedf
being
plreparejd
o'
constitute,
complete
ocial
body,
they
are
relegated
by
thelir
ducational
limitations
to' a
few
of
the
ower
occupations.
Theyremain
separate
las s,
mere
fra;gm,ent
f a
society.
Un,der
he
American
olicy
with
e-
spect
o
the
Philippines,t
is
piroiposed
hat
he
Filipinos
hall
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I
I6
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
notbe merely
ultivators,f ice
o,r hebearers
f
burdens,
ut
that
hey
hall be furnished ith ll
the facilities,
or ducation
of which hey an.makeadvantageous se; and it is expected
that ntelligenice
ather han, ignoranice
ill render hem on-
tented
n their
present
olitical
elatioln snd strengthenheir
allegiance
o
the
constituteduthorities.
COLONIAL
AUTONOMY,
WITH SPECIAL
REFER-
ENCE T'O THE GOVERNMENT OF THE
PHILIPPINE
ISLANDS.
PAUL S.
REINSCH.
The
historical onditions
urrounding
he acquisition
lf
ihe
Philippineslands by
the American
overnment
ere of
such
a nature
ls o give ri,se o, very
definite
ndpeculiar
egisla-
tive policy. The colonial xplansionf othernationshas usu-
ally
followed p commiercial
r
other lconomic
nterprises,
nd
therefore as
generally
een
dominated nly
in
a
secondary
manner y political
onsilderations,.
n
the mperial
xpansion
oif rance, ,t
s
tirue, olitical
motives redominated
o a
larger
extent, nd
we
shall
therefore
e
prepared
o,
find
certain
similarity
etween
merican,
nid rench olonialmlethods.
t
was a politicalmotive,-thedesire o weaken heprestige f
Spain,-that
led
the American
overnment
o
make an attack
upon Spanish
dominion
n
tihe
Philippine slands,
at a time
when
he American
ation
had
as
yet
noi conomic nterests
n
the
archipelago,
he
foreign
ommerce
f
which
was
in
the
handsof Chinese
nd
Europeans.
It was also
primarily
or
political
urposie
hat
he
slanlds eire
ltimately
etaineid,
s
it
was felt hat heywouldasisurelheUnitedStates polsitionif
leadersihip
n
the settlement
f thhe riental
nd
Pacificques-
tions.
Another
motive
was
the
desireto
exclude
any
other
po,werwhich
mlight
ish
to take
advantage
O f
renunciation
on
the
part
;of the
Uniteid
tates.
When the islands
had
thus been
acquired,
he
public
consicience as
sonmewhat
is-
turbed, s,pecially
s a stubborn
nd far-spread ative
pposi-
to be force
)f
rms.
It
was therefore