COMMUNICATION STUDIES

MODULE 1: GATHERING AND PROCESSING INFORMATION

Comprehension

Levels: literal, interpretive, analytical, application, synthesis, evaluation (adapted from Bloom’s Taxonomy).

(i) Literal Level refers to understanding what was actually stated and requires surface understanding of facts and details. If you are engaging in rote learning and memorization, you are operating at the literal level.

Sample questions:What did the book say about…?Define…Who invented…?List three…

(ii) Interpretive Level refers to understanding what is implied or meant, rather than what is actually stated. Therefore you would need to be able to make inferences and logical deductions. Generally, open ended questions like why, how, what and if are required at this level of comprehension.

Sample questions:Explain the…What would you conclude…?State in your own words…What does the picture mean…?If it rains, then what…?What reasons or evidence…?

(iii) Application Level refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. This may include the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws and theories.

Sample questions:If you know A and B, how could you determine C?What other possible reasons…?What might they do with…?What would happen if…?

(iv) Analytical Level refers to the ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organisational structure may be understood. This may include the identification of parts, analysis of the relationship between parts and recognition of the organisational principles involved.

Sample questions:What was the author’s purpose, bias or prejudice?What must you know to believe that to be true?Does that follow?Which are facts and which are opinions?

(v) Synthesis Level refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme for classifying information). Learning outcomes in this area stress creative behaviours, with the emphasis on the formulations of new patterns or structure.

Sample questions:If no one else knew, how could you find out?Can you develop a new way?Make up…What would you do…?

(vi) Evaluation Level is concerned with the ability to judge the value of material (e.g. statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given purpose. The judgments are to be based on definite criteria. These may be internal criteria (organization) or external criteria (relevance to the purpose) and the student may

determine the criteria or be given them. Learning outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria.

Sample questions:Which policy will result in the greatest good, for the greatest number?For what reason would you favour…?Which of the books would you consider to be of greater value?Evaluate that idea in terms of cost and community acceptance.

Current Issues: Evaluating Sources

Defining key concepts

FACT- Any phenomena about which there is complete agreement, that is indisputable, is referred to as a FACT.

Example: Barbados is divided into 11 parishes Non-Example: The parish system is the form of

division for a small island.

FACTUAL CLAIMS/EXPERT OPINIONS – Statements based on the empirical work of a professional in a given discipline that have been widely accepted, but are not

universal truths, are referred to as FACTUAL CLAIMS or EXPERT OPINIONS.

Example: Panadol cures headaches.Non-Example: Dousing the head with ice water cures

headaches.

OPINION- The expressing of judgment on given phenomena, which may or may not be supported by evidence. A conclusion arrived at about a thing, person or event, which is not widely accepted.

Example: Sugar coated gelatin Ibuprofen capsules work better than tablets.

Non-Example: Ibuprofen is a brand of medication recommended for the alleviation of aches and pains

DATA- All material that is collected and used as a basis for calculating, reasoning or making decisions.

Example: Statistics; reports; archival documents; records of attendance ; surveys; newspapers; comments in interviews etc. Any material about which new interpretations are formed or from which details are extracted is referred to as data.

Non-Example:A paper, document, report or summary being presented by an individual or organization

is NOT DATA. The sources for the paper or report are.

INFORMATION - The use of material (selected data) for particular purposes. These include persuasion, enlightenment, convincing, entertainment, education, indoctrination, criticism, improvement etc.

Example: Advertisements, editorials, news reports, or

research papers are some examples of information. They are all presented with particular purposes in mind; be it to sell; to disclose; to update; to criticize; or to promote.

Non-Example:An advertisement that is not being used to advertise, sell, alert or persuade a party, but is collected as one of many types of advertisements is not an example of information, rather it becomes a piece of data.

BIAS – The ubiquitous and unavoidable preference of theindividual in a given situation is referred to as BIAS. It is also referred to as predisposition or prejudice.

Example: The promotion of Kwanzaa in Barbados is an indication of true independence because it celebrates the black and African ancestry of its masses.

Non-Example: Any statement of fact would be devoid of bias.

AUTHORITY – A delegated power or right to enforce obedience; or to influence opinion because of recognised knowledge or experience.

Example: A policeman is authorized to conduct breathalyzer tests on drivers seen meandering wildly about the streets.

Non-Example:Miss Darlington’s bag of air taken from the driver who slammed into her car will not be allowed in court as evidence of his drunkenness.

RELIABILITY – This is a measure of the consistency of a response given, or in a position taken by a source.

Example: Three students go to a principal at different times and ask what the school information technology will be like in ten years, and receive the same response. The position or view of the principal is deemed reliable, because he/she has been consistent in the response.

Non Example: If a view is published by an author in a particular year, and then altered any number of times in subsequent texts, the reliability of the information found in a particular edition will be affected. His position having not been maintained on a given topic over a period of time,

he and his comments are susceptible to being labeled fickle or unreliable.

VALIDITY – The extent to which a test, experiment or procedure measures what it aims to measure.

Internal validity relates to whether there are flaws in the design of the research or data collection.

External validity looks at whether your findings can apply or be generalized to a larger group or other situation.

Example: In an interview with the former governor of the Central Bank Kurleigh King, a recognised economist, on the issue of the necessity of the 8% salary cut in 1991, Mr. King commented that it was the least damaging choice for the economy of Barbados, and its perception by first world lending institutions remained high as a result. Mr. King’s comment is valid. It is relevant to the issue discussed and he is and was in a position of authority with knowledge of the implications of the action.

Non-Example: Same scenario as above, Mr. King states that quite a bit of the congregation of Anglican churches left to go to People’s Cathedral that same year. Church demographics is not the issue, nor is Mr. king a member of synod, or council at

either denomination, so the validity and relevance of this comment is low.

THESE TERMS ARE HEAVILY INTERDEPENDENT `

Researching Information (Simon and Osborne, 2009; CXC)

INTRODUCTION

Research is defined as the disciplined process of investigating and seeking facts that will lead one to discover the truth about something. The research must be presented in such a manner that the discovered facts are available to others. The research paper, is a formal presentation of these discovered facts, provides the evidence one needs to defend the opinion expressed in the thesis (Markham et al. 2001).

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Primary Research is that which is original. It is research that the researcher designs and carries out using surveys and/or focus groups.

Table of Primary Sources

Annual Reports Eye-witnessaccounts

Memos Photographs

Autobiographies Membership lists

Raw Data

Census Reports Court Immigration Sources/

Hearings papers InformantsCorrespondences Interviews Newspaper

ArticlesSpeeches

Court cases Letters Original works of literature

Statutes

Diary/journal Birth/death/ marriage records

Personal writings/ narratives

Tax reports

e-mail Meeting minutes

Personal accounts

Minutes

Blog entries Memoirs Newsletters

Secondary Research depends on accessing information that has already been researched and can be found in books, other publications and expert sources.

Table of Secondary Sources:

Almanacs DissertationsBibliographies EncyclopediasBiographies History BooksBooks Journal/Magazine/ Newspaper

articlesCommentaries Reference BooksCritical studies/ Criticism Textbooks

Activity9.1 Read the following scenarios and identify which are examples of primary and which are examples of secondary research.

1. The role of Marcus Garvey in the Harlem Renaissance.2. The performance of students at Malacar High School in

Cape Communication Studies.3. The impact of youth counseling on the incidence of teen

pregnancy in Kairenda village.

primary source (n) An article or other document written by the actual researcher of a study or creator of a theory. Journals are great sources of articles that are primary sources. Historical documents, literary works, letters and reports are also examples of primary sources.

secondary source (n) An article, book or other document written by someone who did not actually do the research or formulate the opinions or theories but who has pulled together relevant sources. Encyclopedias and textbooks are common examples.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Primary Data Collection Methods

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research.

There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:

questionnaires interviews focus group interviews case-studies diaries

The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature (usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where you can make counts of words used).

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.

Advantages

Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey

Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed

Can cover a large number of people or organisations

Wide geographic coverage

Relatively cheap

No prior arrangements are needed

Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent

Possible anonymity of respondent

No interview bias.

Disadvantages

Design problems

Questions have to be relatively simple

Low response rate (inducements may help)

Time delay while waiting for response to be returned

Assumes no literacy problems

No control over who completes it

Not possible to give assistance if required

Problems with incomplete questionnaires

Respondents can read questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too personal.

Interviews

Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behaviour. Interviews can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group. They can be conducted at work at home, in the street or in a shopping centre, or some other agreed location.

Advantages

Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information

Good response rate

Completed and immediate

Possible in-depth questions

Interviewer in control and can help if there is a problem

Can investigate motives and feelings

Can use recording equipment

Characteristics of respondent assessed – tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc.

Can use props

If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach

Disadvantages

Need to set up interviews

Time consuming

Geographic limitations

Can be expensive

Normally need a set of questions

Respondent bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly

Embarrassment possible if personal questions

Transcription and analysis can present problems – subjectivity

If many interviewers, training required.

Types of Interview

Structured: Based on carefully worded interview schedule.

Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.

Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or thought provoking.

Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers.

Semi-structured: The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with the scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length.

Unstructured: This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent’s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration – ‘Why did you say that?’ or, “That’s interesting, tell me more” or, “Would you like to add anything else?’ being typical probes.

Telephone Interview

There is an alternative for of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview.

Advantages:Relatively cheap

Quick

Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations

Wide geographic coverage

High response rate – keep going till required number

No waiting

Spontaneous response

Help can be given to the respondent

Can tape answers

Disadvantages:

Often collected with selling

Questionnaire required

Not everyone has a telephone

Straightforward questions are required

Respondent has little time to think

Cannot use visual aids

Good telephone manner is required

Question of authority

Focus group interviews

A focus group is an interview conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion. The main purpose of the focus groups is to gain insights by listening to a group of people from the appropriate target market talk about specific issues of interest.

Observation

Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner. Observational methods may be:

Structured or unstructuredIn structured observation, the researcher specifies in

detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded. It is appropriate when the problem is clearly defined and the information needed is specified.

In unstructured observation, the researcher monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant. It is appropriate when the problem has yet to be formulated

precisely and flexibility is needed in observation to identify key components of the problem and to develop hypotheses. The potential for bias is high. Observation findings should be treated as hypotheses to be tested rather than as conclusive findings.

Disguised or undisguised

In disguised observation, respondents are unaware that they are being observed and thus behave naturally. Disguise is achieved, for example, by hiding, or using hidden equipment or people disguised as shoppers.

In undisguised observation, respondents are aware they are being observed. There is a danger of the Hawthorne effect – people behave differently when being observed.

Natural or contrived

Natural observation involves observing behaviour as it takes place in the environment, for example, eating hamburgers in a fast food outlet.

In contrived observation, the respondent’s behaviour is observed in an artificial environment, for example, a food tasting session.

Personal

In personal observation, a researcher observes actual behaviour as it occurs. The observer may or may not

normally attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed. The observer merely records what takes place.

Mechanical

Mechanical devices (video, closed circuit television) record what is being observed. He or she does not participate.

Non-participant

The observer does not normally question or communicate with the people being observed. He or she does not participate.

Participant

In participant observation, the researcher becomes, or is, part of the group that is being investigated. Participation observation has its roots in ethnographic studies (study of man and races) where researchers would live in tribal villages, attempting to understand the customs and practices of that culture. Organisations can be viewed as ‘tribes’ with their own customs and practices.

Case Studies

The term case-study refers to a fairly intensive examination of a single unit such as a person, a small group of people, or a single company. Case-studies involve measuring what is there and how it got there. In this sense it is historical. It can enable the

researcher to explore, unravel and understand problems, issues and relationships. It cannot, however, allow the researcher to generalize, that is, to argue that from one case-study the results, findings or theory developed apply to other similar case-studies. The case looked at may be unique and, therefore not representative of other instances.

Method: 1. Determine the present situation

2. Gather background information about the past and key variables3. Test hypotheses developed from analysis of background information by gathering information. This may lead to development of an experiment to test hypothesis or it might be to take action to remedy the problem.

Advantage: The case study enables rich information to be gathered, from which potentially, useful hypotheses can be developed.

Disadvantages:It can be time consuming. It is also inefficient when researching situations which are already well structured and where the important variables are already known. Case-studies lack rigor when trying to determine precise relationships between variables.

Diaries

A diary is a way of gathering information about the way individuals spend their time on professional activities. They are not about records of engagements or personal journals of thought. Diaries can record either qualitative or quantitative data, and in management research can provide information about work patterns and activities.

Advantages:Useful for collecting information from employees

Different writers compared and contrasted simultaneously

Allows the researcher freedom to move from one organisation to another

Researcher not personally involved

Diaries can be used as a preliminary or basis for intensive interviewing

Used as an alternative to direct observation or where resources are limited

Disadvantages:Subjects need to be clear about what they are being asked to do, why and what you plan to with the data

Diarists need to be of a certain educational level

Some structure is necessary to give the diarist focus, for example, a list of headings

Encouragement and reassurance necessary as completing a diary is time consuming

Progress needs checking from time to time

Confidentiality is required

Analyses problems – so coding needs to be pre-determined

SamplingCollecting data is time consuming and expensive, even for relatively small amounts of data. Hence it is highly unlikely that a complete population will be sampled. You will, therefore, have to take a sample and usually a very small sample.

Sampling theory says a correctly taken sample of an appropriate size will yield results that can be applied to the population as a whole.

How the sample is taken and, how large the sample should be are important considerations.