Communication: UNIT 5 COMMUNICATION: Concepts … 5 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES ... memos, notes, circulars, ... any such act which the party notices and,

Communication:Concepts and Principles

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UNIT 5 COMMUNICATION:CONCEPTS ANDPRINCIPLES

Structure5.0 Introduction5.1 Unit Objectives5.2 Communications: Importance and Process of Communication

5.2.1 Interpersonal Communication5.2.2 Intrapersonal Communication5.2.3 Process of Communication5.2.4 Communication in Organization

5.3 Barriers to Communication and Overcoming these Barriers5.3.1 Overcoming Communication Barriers

5.4 Principles of Effective Communication5.5 Summary5.6 Key Terms5.7 Answers to ‘Check Your Progress’5.8 Questions and Exercises5.9 Further Reading

5.0 INTRODUCTION

Communication, as we have seen, is fundamental to any human interaction. Infamilies, societies, organizations and businesses, people constantly communicatewith each other. Communication is indeed a necessity in various walks of life. Wehave already seen that communication which is so integral to work and work lifesituations, all the same, has its complexities. The complexities arise from the factthat communication is an interplay of human beings, organizations, markets, andvarious mechanical and electronic devices. Human beings are very complex beings.They bring to the process of communication their skills, attitudes, behaviour, styles,social and cultural background. All its complexities notwithstanding, the processof communication can be mastered. Those who can master the process ofcommunication operate from a position of strength—a strength that facilitates self-development, career progression, leadership and contribution to society. Masteringvarious skills relating to communication is indeed a sine qua non for leadershipand for achieving business-related excellence.

Communication is a very important part of any organization. It takes placeamong business entities, within markets, various groups of employees, buyers andsellers, service providers and clients, sales person and prospective buyers andwithin the organization and with the press.

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5.1 UNIT OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:• Understand the importance and process of communication• Differentiate between interpersonal and intrapersonal skills• Outline the various forms of communication• Identify the various barriers of communication• Work out ways to overcome barriers to communication

5.2 COMMUNICATIONS: IMPORTANCE ANDPROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is the interchange of thoughts and information to bring about mutualunderstanding. It is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and emotions. It involvestelling, listening and understanding. It ushers in progress, galvanizes action andadds meaning to life. It stems from one's need to emote, interact, relate, reach outand connect. The methods of communication are oral or verbal, written, non-verbal, visual and audio-visual. Silence is also a form of communication, and ismore often eloquent than words. Oral communication is the most widely usedmethod, and plays an important part in everyday life, both for individuals andorganizations. It takes place through meetings, speeches, discussions, etc. withthe help of microphones, telephones, radio and other such media. Writtencommunication is another powerful method of communication. It takes place throughletters, memos, notes, circulars, etc. with the use of computers, word processors,telex, fax, etc. Non-verbal communication has a universal appeal and takes placethrough body language, gestures and postures, facial expression, etc. Visualcommunication includes pictures, graphs, charts, etc. and is often used as asupplement to other forms of communication. Demonstrations and presentationsare included in this form. Self-development and communication go hand in hand.The greater the effort made at improving communication skills, the more will youdevelop in reaching out to people socially and professionally. Not all communicationthat takes place among individuals and groups is effective. Barriers apart, thereare several factors affecting communication. These are conceptual clarity of thecommunicator, language used in the communication, moods and receptivity of thesender and the receiver, and the timing of the communication.

Good communication is not a matter of accident or chance. Especially inany business situation, it calls for planned, organized and coordinated efforts. Severalessential ingredients contributing to the success of the communication should bereckoned with.


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Essentials of effective communications are (i) clarity of purpose, (ii)understanding of the process, (iii) addressing the right target audience, (iv) requisitecommunication skills, (v) adequate information, (vi) proper planning, (vii) positiveapproach and (viii) sincerity.

Effective communication also calls for consistency, timeliness, use ofappropriate modes and channels, cost consciousness, avoidance of communicationoverload or extreme feelings and finally, concern for feedback. Communicationtakes place among human beings. Therefore, the behavioural dimension assumesgreat significance. Human behaviour gets reflected through perceptions, attitudes,beliefs, values, norms and experiences. That is why it is said, ‘Meanings are inpeople, not in words’. Perception is described as the process of making sense outof events. It is essentially a matter of personal judgement. A good communicatorhas to realize that perceptions tend to vary from person to person and accordinglyfactor this realization into the communication. Attitudes exert a strong influence onhuman relationships and consequently on the process of communication. They canbe positive and negative. A good communicator should recognize the importanceof positive attitudes. People have their own beliefs regarding various subjects.Such beliefs cover areas like religion, superstition and rebirth. In order to beeffective, a good communicator should refrain from passing a judgement on suchbeliefs and instead accommodate them in his approach. Values and value systemsalso influence communication, which becomes effective only when values showcongruence. Norms and experience too impact communication. People tend tointerpret messages in terms of these facets. A good communicator develops aclear insight into human behaviour and uses it to advantage.

5.2.1 Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication skills are direct and interactiveInterpersonal communication skills are an important facet of the process ofcommunication, and as such are extremely relevant for achieving personal as wellas professional success. Interpersonal communication refers to face-to-face orperson-to-person communication. It is often direct and interactive. The messageis orally communicated with the help of words as well as through non-verbalcommunication, encompassing body language, spacing, facial expressions, tone,gestures, and action. Interpersonal communication involves the effective use ofverbal messages plus body language.Effective communication calls for insight into human behaviourInterpersonal communication has come to acquire particular significance in allpeople-oriented situations. Large organizations that employ people at various levelslay particular emphasis on building interpersonal or people-related communicationskills. Effective interpersonal communication calls for good insight into humanbehaviour and a clear understanding of how people are likely to react under differentsituations. Interpersonal skills are relevant in dealing with people, both within andwithout, in any service sector organization. They are particularly relevant in dealing



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with customer grievances and complaints redressal. Good interpersonal skills ofthe counter staff or the floor supervisor help diffuse heated arguments or flaring upduring customer interaction, and, thereby, contain the damage to the business.Training and other HRD efforts focus on developing interpersonal skillsInterpersonal skills have also come to acquire relevance as part of the HRD effortsof large and small organizations. People with good interpersonal communicationskills are considered an asset to any organization. Training programs of serviceoriented organizations like banks, include sessions on the development ofinterpersonal skills. As one goes up the hierarchical ladder in an organization,one’s span of control, or the number of people reporting also often gets enlarged.Effective interpersonal skills are a must in dealing with people at various levels.

How you say it is what mattersAt a higher level, by interpersonal skills, we refer to certain specialized skills indealing with people under complex situations. In any business organization wherea large number of people are working, both pleasant and unpleasant situationsmight develop. A supervisor or manager might have to convey not only appreciationor praise, but also punishment and unpalatable developments. The job may involvecriticism and reprimand of juniors. Under such circumstances, not only what thesupervisor says, but also the way in which it is said and what is done throughactions assume meaning.

Good leaders consciously develop all these verbal and non-verbal skillsand use them successfully in dealing with a variety of people and situations. Theyuse their interpersonal communication skills to create the desired impression, bothpositive and negative as the case may be. The words they choose, the way inwhich they express them, the tone, the gestures, and the action in totality are allimpact creating, in any relationship building exercise, consciously or otherwise.The customer makes an impression on the counter staff as the customer walks in.The counter staff, likewise, make an impression on the customer. In any business,the first impression carries considerable value. If it is right, it results in a positiverelationship. Hence, the right skills would cover the way we say hello, the smile,the attentiveness, the firm handshake, the impression we make as we enter andany such act which the party notices and, more importantly, interprets.

Some other essential skills relevant for effective interpersonal communicationare the ability to win trust, build rapport, ask the right questions, and elicit fulldetails. Effective interpersonal communication involves creating the right impressionand conveying the anticipated message in a convincing manner. This demandshonesty in approach and carrying in transparent communication. It means puttingforth the right kind of questions in the right manner and bringing the other party tocommunicate. It means leading the other individual to believe in you and make youhis confidante. It means making the other individual to break his hesitation. Whenwe think of counselling, negotiation, hearing of appeals, personal interviews etc.,extra communication skills would be involved. They have to be developed withconscious efforts.


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Develop a positive attitudePeople in service industry, as we have noted earlier, should necessarily have onebasic skill, the ability to get along with other people. They should developinterpersonal skills such as the ability to communicate effectively and also work asa member of the team. While job-oriented expertise and knowledge are important,but that which is just as significant is the correct approach. The customer mayadmit not having complete knowledge but in no case will impoliteness orunresponsiveness be acceptable to him. That is why, training programs in serviceorganizations covering marketing and customer relations lay particular emphasison building the right attitude or mindset.

Bad feelings should not hinder communication

People come to work not only with their hands and heads, but also their hearts.They come with not only knowledge, wisdom and intelligence, but also feelingsand emotions. Dealing with other people involves control over moods. Any worksituation has its mix of positives and negatives, good and bad strokes. Goodinterpersonal skills require underplaying the negative strokes and not letting themspoil one’s temperament. A service provider should learn to rise above bad feelingscoming from any quarter and not let those show up or hinder dealings with thecustomers.

Use logic to cope with difficult situations

The following quote from Roberta Cava brings out beautifully the strength of rationalresponse in dealing with difficult situations: ‘Two forces—logic and emotion are atwork throughout our lives. Often they push and pull in opposite directions. Theone that prevails at any particular time, will determine how we get along withothers and may affect our level of achievement. It is easy to respond to situationswith emotions rather than logic, but responding logically helps us deal constructivelywith difficult situations.’Harmonious interpersonal relationships are the secret of businessdevelopmentHarmonious relations with colleagues in the workplace and customers at the counterand at the field level are the secrets of business development. Both are of equalimportance and complement each other. Harmonious interpersonal relationshipsamong employees result in well-knit teams that can respond effectively to thecustomers, and the customer sees one happy family at work. No wonder JohnRockfeller said, ‘I will pay more for the ability to deal with people than for anyother ability under the sun’.

Leadership and communication skills

Leadership and communication are closely interelated. Good leaders master theart of communication. A leader, by definition, is a person who has a following.Whatever be the profession or business, a leader communicates through verbal



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and non-verbal messages, especially by setting an example or being a role model.The followers keenly look up to the leaders for their messages. Business leadersare also team leaders. They inspire and motivate their teammates. The ability toget across, build rapport and win trust becomes so crucial that achieving all thesecommunication skills comes in very useful. To get results working with other people,the right kind of communication is a must for any leader.

Transactional analysis

Transactional analysis (TA) is regarded as one of the most promising breakthroughsin psychiatry in many years. TA, which constitutes yet another valuable approachto the understanding of human behavior and action, was originally developed byDr Eric Berne, author of the book, Games People Play. The basic theorypropounded by Dr Berne and the subsequent discussions on the subject havebeen presented by Dr Thomas A. Harris, founder-president of the Institute ofTransactional Analysis, California, in his book, I’m OK-You’re OK. In any businesswhere services and products are delivered at the counters on a person-to-personbasis, a study of TA should prove useful in understanding and appropriatelyresponding to varied behavior.

TA divides an individual’s personality into three ego states. An ego state hasbeen defined as a consistent pattern of thinking, feeling or behaving. These statesare produced by recalling the past events involving real people, real times, realplaces and real feelings. The ego states are helpful in distinguishing the words fromtheir literal counterparts.

The three ego states identified are :• Parent state. This is that state of the human personality that relates

mainly to values, opinions and experiences of childhood. This state maybe expressed either through the critical parent or the nurturing parent.

• Adult state. The adult state refers to the rational part of the humanpersonality. Problem-solving and decision-making under this state aredone on the basis of a careful assessment of factual data.

• Child state. This state relates to the emotional part of the humanpersonality. This state may be expressed either through the free child orthe adopted child.

I am OK – you are OKThis is an eminently desirable position. It indicates an acceptance of one’s ownself-worth as well as that of others. In this, the position transcends personalexperiences and accepts not-yet-experienced abstractions and possibilities.

This life position shows a positive approach in dealing with real life situations.The person concerned shows a sense of maturity and is not uneasy while dealingwith others. People with this attitude enjoy positions of leadership and do well interms of developing and sustaining meaningful interpersonal relationships.


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I am not OK – you are OKThis position relates to the acceptance of others but not of self. The person feelsthat there is something lacking in him.

This life position shows a shortcoming in dealing with real life positions.There may be a certain inferiority complex in interacting with others. By nature,this person will be submissive or passive. Such persons often show a subservientattitude and may also be conspicuous by their self-denial. Very often, ‘I am notOK – you are OK’ kind of people look up to others for advice and seek constantguidance.

I am OK – you are not OKThis position relates to the acceptance of self but not of others. The person feelsthat there is something lacking in others.

This life position too has its limitation in dealing with real life situations. Inthis case, the person concerned will have a superiority complex. The posture theperson takes in dealing with situations is aggressive or even intimidating. This persontries to dominate and tends to provide unsolicited advice.

I am not OK – you are not OKThis position refers to the rejection of both self and others. For them, nothing isright. There is something lacking in them and also in others.

This life position too is very inadequate and deficient in dealing with peopleand situations. They are the opposite of I am OK – you are OK kind of persons.Such persons are conspicuous by their negative or pessimistic approach. Theyundermine themselves as well as others. They look down upon others, do not givecredit for positive development and paint a gloomy picture. Such an attitude iscertainly not conducive for becoming an effective leader.

Against this background of human personality, TA attempts to analyse atransaction. A transaction forms a basic unit of communication, i.e., a stimulus byone person and a response by the other. Obviously, such transactions keep takingplace among people in a family, community and organization all the time. Transactionstake place every time people meet or a communication takes place. All suchtransactions are categorized into three types: complementary transactions,uncomplementary or crossed transactions and hidden transactions. Complementarytransaction takes place when the conversation proceeds smoothly, with expectedresponses emanating. On the other hand, in a crossed transaction, there is anunexpected response, leading to a breakdown in communication. In a hiddentransaction, real responses are conveyed through facial expressions or other actions,and the words expressed do not convey the real meaning.

Types of transactions in TADr Eric Berne claims that people spend 50 per cent of their waking hours inplaying games. A game has been described as a covert method for either giving orcollecting strokes, usually negative strokes or insults.



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Games people play: Understanding the ‘games people play’ is what TA isall about. To the extent TA constitutes yet another approach to the understandingof human behaviour, people in businesses and organizations dealing with customers,colleagues, and other public on a regular basis should find a study of the subjectrewarding.

Ego states and life positions described above significantly influence thebehaviour of people. As we have seen earlier, the process of communication isalso influenced by human behaviour and attitudes. Communication and interpersonalskills are again influenced by personality traits. The rational part and the emotionalpart of the human personality exert their influence on people in their transactions.

Communication and life positions: Understanding the life position fromwhich a person operates is very essential for making communication effective.Persons in the I am OK – you are OK category will show a positive and matureapproach in dealing with various kinds of people, and ensure that communicationdoes not break down. Dominating colleagues and rude customers who may belongto the I am OK – you are not OK class of people have to be dealt with in anappropriate manner. To the extent TA constitutes an essential approach inunderstanding human behavior so relevant for effective interpersonal communication,it would be beneficial to understand the concept, and use it for making businesscommunication worthwhile.

5.2.2 Intrapersonal Communication

The word ‘intra’ means inside or within. In contrast to interpersonal communication,which implies communication with the other person, intrapersonal communicationimplies with the self. It refers to communication within the self, involving the processof thinking and feeling. Intrapersonal communication is a method of communicationthat helps every person to communicate with himself or herself. It helps in clarifyingwhat is known as the self-concept. It is basically an interaspective exercise.Intrapersonal communication is an inward looking exerciseIntrapersonal communication can also be understood as self-talk. Self-talk isrecognized as the verbal side of thinking. There is indeed a positive side of self-talk. Self-talk, also recognized as self-dialogue or inner speech is what you say toyourself during your waking hours. It is necessary to create self-awareness aboutself-talk. Such awareness helps analyse self-concepts and overcome negativefeelings. Self-talk, if properly used, can help in overcoming emotional distress.Effective intrapersonal communication relates to the art of thinking, planning, andinterpreting ideas and messages in a positive manner.Intrapersonal communication overcomes negative feelingsIntrapersonal communication would also relate to the voice of conscience. Thisvoice can play a significant role in the lives of individuals. It emphasizes the valuesand the ethical dimension in organizations. It brings to the fore the rational or thelogical side of the business transaction and helps exercise the much needed restraintin communication. Through conscious efforts, one learns to talk to oneself so as tobring out positive response.


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Intrapersonal communication is essential for interpersonal communicationOne cannot really communicate effectively with the outside world, unless onemasters the art of communicating effectively with oneself. In that sense, intrapersonalcommunication is a necessary precondition for effective interpersonalcommunication. Good communication depends upon positive outlook. Self-talkprepares the ground for this. Those who talk to themselves are not necessarilycrazy or mad. They are those who make effective use of yet another dimension ofcommunication. Before making an important speech or attending a crucial meetingor responding to a provocative situation, you may take time off to talk to yourself,strengthen your resolve to exercise restraint and eschew anger or sarcasm. Toquote Abraham Lincoln, ‘When I am getting ready to reason with a man, I spendone-third of my time thinking about myself and what I am going to say and two-thirds about him and what he is going to say.’

Intrapersonal communication, when used effectively, provides the rightbalance, orientation and frame of judgement in communicating with the outsideworld.

5.2.3 Process of CommunicationA simple communication model that reflects communication as a dynamic interactiveprocess has been proposed by David Berdo. His approach is based upon thefollowing idea:

‘If we, accept the concept of process, we view events and relationships asdynamic, on-going, ever-changing, continuous. When we label something as aprocess, we also mean that it does not have a beginning, an end, a fixed sequenceof events. It is not static, at rest. It is moving. The ingredients within a processinteract, with each affecting the rest’.

This model described as a series of steps consists of the followingcomponents :

1. Message sender. This is the source of information or the initiator ofcommunication. This source may want to communicate his ideas, needs,intentions or other pieces of information.

2. Encoder. This is the process inside the human mind in the form ofmotor skills, muscle system or sensory skills that encode the ideas tobe conveyed into a series of symbols or gestures or some other formatof expression.

3. The message. The message is a physical form of the thought that canbe experienced and understood by one or more senses of the receiver.It could be in the form of hearing, reading or other physical gestures.

4. Channel of communication. It is a vehicle used for the transmissionof the message. It is a medium carrier and bridges the gap betweenthe sender and the receiver. It may be a face-to-face conversation,telephone conversation, in written form or through any form of gestures.



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5. Perception of the message. The message is received by the personfor whom it was meant and he becomes the receiver of the message.

6. Decoding process. Decoding is also done in the same manner asencoding by motor skills, muscle system or sensory skills and thereceiver decodes the message for the purpose of interpreting andunderstanding the meaning of the message. The more the receiver’sintended message, the more effective the communication is.

7. Action. This is a response from the receiver who has received andaccepted the communication. This may be compliance with aninstruction or simply filing of the message for future references.

8. Feedback. A feedback determines whether the message was clearlyunderstood and the required action taken. The feedback to the sendercompletes the process of communication.

5.2.4 Communication in Organization

Internal communicationInternal communication takes place within the organization or group—among peoplewithin, among different groups of employees and between employers andemployees. It could be oral or written, visual or audio-visual, formal or informal,and upward or downward. Internal communication serves to inform, instruct,educate, develop, motivate, persuade, entertain, direct, control and caution peoplein the organization. When a personal letter is written at an official address, besideswriting the name of the addressee, the envelope is superscribed ‘Private’ or‘Confidential’ to convey the nature of communication. Knowledge, skills, goalorientation, sharing of corporate concerns, review and monitoring, performanceappraisal, counselling and training are among the issues that internal communicationaddresses.External communicationUnlike internal communication, external communication flows outward. It addressespeople outside the organization, like the prospective customers, competitors, public,press, media and the government. External communication can take place in variousways and through different channels. Letters, notices, brochures, demonstrations,telephone calls, business meetings, press releases, press conferences, audio-visualpresentations, publicity films, product launch events and advertisements are allexamples of external communication. It is important to note that the external agencyor person targeted through such communication, quite often forms an image orimpression based on such communication and it is, therefore, very necessary thatadequate care is taken in making it clear, intelligible and appealing.Upward communicationLarge organizations have different hierarchical levels or tiers. Banks, financecompanies, insurance businesses, railways and such other people-orientedorganizations have typically a 3- or a 4-tier structure. The process of communication


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to be complete and effective, should encompass all these levels and tiers. Upwardcommunication is one which moves upward, i.e., from bottom to top levels in thehierarchy (Figure 5.1).

Any communication that moves from employees to supervisors, supervisorsto managers, managers to executives, regional manager to general manager andso on, may be categorized as upward communication. Similarly, communicationfrom branches to regional offices, regional offices to zonal offices, zonal offices tohead office is referred to as upward communication. Employee suggestions, marketreports, performance reports, feedback on new products and requests for facilitiesor instructions are all examples of upward communication in the organizationalcontext.

Supervisor Manager Executive Chief Executive Zonal Office

Employee Supervisor Manager Executive Branch

Figure 5.1 Upward Communication

Downward communicationDownward communication moves from top to the bottom, i.e., from the CEOdownwards. It travels through senior executives to junior level functionaries, fromthe controlling office to the branch, from the head of the division to the head of theunit. Corporate goals, business priorities, motivational letters, work-relatedinstructions, newsletters, letters from the CEO/general manager’s desk are alltypical examples of downward communication (Figure 5.2).

There may be some communication, which would move both upward anddownward. A typical example of this is performance budgeting, which is a two-way process. It is a top to bottom as well as bottom to top exercise.

Chief Executive Executive Manager Supervisor Zonal Office

Executive Manager Supervisor Employee Branch

Figure 5.2 Downward Communication

Formal communicationTowards ensuring communication on an on-going basis, organizations developformal systems. Staff meetings, union-management meetings, branch managers’conferences, periodical sales review meetings and customer meets are examplesof forums that facilitate formal communication. Formal communication generallyfollows a well-defined hierarchical pattern and periodicity. Memos, circulars,instructions, guidelines, clarifications, agreements and reports are some of thechannels that facilitate the flow of formal communication in business organizations.



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Informal communicationThis type of communication takes place in an unstructured manner and outside theformal forums. There is an element of spontaneity in this communication. Informalcommunication works well in smaller, loosely knit organizations. It is used moreoften in situations where there are no rigid hierarchical tiers. While formal structureof communication is a must in large organizations, it is the informality that helpssustain goal orientation in small well-knit units. Informal communication takes placethrough chats, conversations, informal talks and the like.Lateral communicationLateral communication generally takes place in an organization and is neither upwardnor downward. It proceeds in a horizontal manner and takes place among equalsand at peer level (Figure 5.3).

Supervisor Supervisor Manager Manager

Branch Branch

Figure 5.3 Lateral Communication

It may also be described as peer level communication. Any communicationthat takes place, orally or in writing, from one branch head to the other, from onedivision head to the other, from one group head to the other, may be described aslateral communication. An important point worth noting in any such lateralcommunication is that there is not much difference in terms of the hierarchicallevels or positions of the sender and the receiver.Interactive communicationInteractive communication is essentially a two-way process. It takes place throughmeetings, conferences, teleconferencing, multimedia presentations, groupdiscussions and other such active two-way exchanges. Interactive communicationis most appropriate when the message or subject is to be presented at length, e.g.,in practical sessions, case study discussions and strategy formulation. When manyspeakers are involved, there may be a need for a moderator who will facilitateeffective flow of communication from different speakers.

Once the British prime minister and his secretary were travelling through theEnglish countryside. Suddenly they realised that they had lost their way. ThePrime Minister told the secretary, ‘When we next see a person on the road, stopthe car and ask him exactly where we are.’ Accordingly, the secretary stoppedthe car and asked the next passerby, ‘Where are we?.’ The man replied, ‘You arein your car.’ On hearing that, the prime minister told the secretary, ‘This is theperfect example of a British parliamentary reply. It is brief, to the point, truthfuland does not tell anything more than what you already know!’


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Mass communicationMass communication is distinctive in view of its scale. Essentially, it addresses alarge mass of people. Public speaking, newspapers, magazines and journals, radio,television, dotcoms, etc. are all channels of mass communication. Masscommunication has developed into a specialized area of study. Each of these areasor channels calls for distinct skills. By its very nature, mass communication addressesa vast, well spread out and heterogeneous group of people and, as such, specialefforts will have to be made to sustain their interest and achieve the desired response.At the government level too, there is often a separate ministry or department ofmass communication to deal with this functional area. Main branches of studyrelating to mass communication are public relations, advertising and publicity,journalism and digital media.GrapevineGrapevine is a kind of informal communication that prevails in organizations andbusinesses. The source of such communication may not be clear. It spreads byway of gossip and rumours. It travels through informal networks and quite oftentravels faster than the formal messages. Sometimes, it gets more powerful andbecomes more receptive than the formal communication. The prevalence of thistype of communication in an organization has to be recognized and accepted. Askilled communicator can derive benefits from such a communication as well. Itmay not always be possible to control the grapevine, but, nevertheless, an ablecommunicator knows how to influence it. Like any other type of communication,this one too has its merits and demerits.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. What are the essentials of effective communication?2. What is the difference between interpersonal and intrapersonal relationship?3. What are the types of transactions in TA?4. What are the various kinds of communications in an organization?5. What is lateral communication?6. Which kind of informal communication prevails in organizations and businesses

and may be more powerful and receptive than formal communication?

5.3 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION ANDOVERCOMING THESE BARRIERS

As we have seen earlier, communication is a process that covers six different stepsinvolving, among others, encoding, decoding and transmission. For ensuring effectivecommunication, all the parties and instruments will have to play their part asenvisaged. At every stage of the communication process, however, there are



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barriers, that hinder or dilute the flow of communication. The barriers tocommunication in an organizational context may arise out of authority structure,status difference, reporting relationships, culture and background of individuals.The barriers to communication may arise out of behavioural differences, differencesin skills and understanding as well as physical factors. While some kinds of barrierslike behavioural differences and differences in skills may be commonly applicableto all methods of communication, barriers arising out of physical factors may bespecific to the method of communication adopted. Some barriers, which are specificto the written communication, are handwriting, spellings and legibility. Similarly,barriers to oral communication would include absence of felicity of expression,accent, speed of delivery and appropriateness of the language.

Poor expression

The power of expression of the communicator determines the quality ofcommunication. To be effective, the message has to be properly developed froman idea. Barriers relating to expression result in poorly expressed messages. Lackof conceptual skills results in inadequate or incomplete shaping of the idea. Lackof clarity and ambiguity result from limited word power, improper organization ofideas and lack of coherence. If the words and thoughts are not organized properly,the communication would suffer for want of structural balance or a sense ofproportion. Obviously, such poor expression of thoughts and ideas leads toincorrect, incomplete and incoherent messages. All this would result in avoidableerrors and seeking of further clarifications, adding to costs and delays incommunication. Encoding and decoding require skill to ensure clarity and precision.Poor expression is likely to occur under the following circumstances:

• When a person is ill• When a person is fatigued• When a person is under severe stress• When a person is under the influence of alcohol

These are true for both oral and written communication.Faulty transmissionsThe process of transmission, essential for any communication, is susceptible toerrors of omission and commission. In the organizational context, the persontransmitting the message may be different from the person who conceived theidea. The intent and purpose of the message may not remain the same as it movesfrom the originator to the transmitter. Not only that, the person transmitting themessage may bring in his own biases, feelings and perceptions, which the originatorof the message would not have intended. Or else, there may be occasions whenthe originator of the idea expects the transmitter to detail, illustrate and elucidatethe idea, which the latter may fail to do.


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Indifference and lack of interestThis is indeed a very strong barrier in the process of communication. Organizationshave to make considerable effort to ensure that indifference to organizationalcommunication is brought down to the minimum. Communication, to be effective,presupposes that the receiver of the message is also attentive or receptive. Attentivelistening in oral communication, careful reading in written communication and keenobservation in non-verbal communication are a must. Indifference or lack of intereston the part of the recipient, in turn, adversely impacts the enthusiasm of thecommunicator. When the students are not attentive, the teacher is likely to loseinterest. On the other hand, when the speaker lacks expertise or credibility, thereceptivity of the audience wanes. Indifference and lack of interest creates barriersto communication, as a result of which the quality of communication suffers. Theintended message is either not received at all or is incomplete and, worse still, isunderstood incorrectly.NoiseNoise is yet another barrier, especially relevant to verbal communication. Noisedisturbs the flow of communication. The recipient fails to receive the oral messagessent by the communicator, as a result of which the message gets diluted. Whilenoise certainly affects oral communication, it may also affect written communicationto the extent that the person writing a letter or a report may lose his concentrationand consequently his flow of thoughts may suffer.Physical factorsThe process of communication, especially transmission of messages, makes useof numerous channels, instruments and gadgets such as telephone, microphone,projector, printing, photocopying, telex, fax, radio, film, cassette and of late, theCDs and USB drives. All these are very useful when they function smoothly. Atthe same time, they act as barriers when they fail to perform their functions efficiently.As a result, communication fails to reach the target audience. Snapping of telephonelines, non-availability of meeting rooms, failure of multimedia equipment anddisturbances of power supply may lead to delays in transmitting the messages tothe intended recipients.People-related factorsThe process of communication essentially involves human beings. Like democracy,we may describe communication as of the people, for the people and by thepeople. Yet, people do not think, understand and interpret alike. In other words,meanings are in people. In any large organization, especially in multinational ones,there are differences among the employees in terms of language group, culturalbackground, rural-urban origin, hierarchical levels, etc. that in turn createpsychological, linguistic and cultural barriers. Differences in hierarchical positionshave their implications in terms of work structure, authority, status and relationship.In such situations, people may have bias, fear and reticence, that act as barriers tothe free flow of communication. All these factors lead to different expectations



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among people within the organization, as to who should communicate with whom,and in what manner. Apart from this, the organizational climate has its impact oncommunication. It is conductive when people are encouraged to speak out andthere is free flow of communication. On the other hand, when the organizationalclimate is disturbed, and when dissenting voices are stifled barriers emerge.

We have seen that there are often numerous barriers to the free flow ofcommunication. Such barriers disturb, or dilute hinder the process ofcommunication. These barriers may be classified as physical, psychological,linguistic, cultural and so on. It is worth emphasizing, however, that most barriersare surmountable. It is possible to anticipate, recognize and foresee the prevalenceof barriers and take appropriate corrective action. With conscious effort, it shouldbe possible to overcome these barriers and ensure free flow of communication onan ongoing basis.

5.3.1 Overcoming Communication Barriers

It is very important for the management to recognize and overcome barriers toeffective communication for operational optimization and this would involvediagnosing and analysing situations, designing proper messages, selectingappropriate channels for communicating these messages, assisting receivers ofmessages in correct decoding and interpretation and providing an efficient andeffective feedback system. Some of the steps that can be taken in this respect areas follows:

• Feedback and upward communication. Feedback helps to reducemisunderstandings. Information is transferred more accurately when thereceiver is given the opportunity to ask for clarifications about themessage. Two-way communication, even though more time consuming,avoids distrust. It leads to trust and openness that builds a healthyrelationship contributing to communication effectiveness. Upwardcommunication is strengthened by keeping an open door policy andproviding opportunities to workers to give their suggestions which themanagement should acknowledge and take appropriate action.

• Improve listening skills. According to Stuart Chase, ‘listening is theother half of talking’. It is a very important part of the communicationprocess. Listening is an active mental process and goes beyond simplyhearing. Good listening habits lead to better understanding and goodrelationships with each other.

Guidelines for effective listening(a) Listening requires full attention of the speaker. Do not let your mind wander

or be preoccupied with something else, otherwise you would not be able tograsp the meaning of the message in its entirety.

(b) The language used, tone of the voice and emotions should receive properattention. Listen for feelings in the message content and respond positivelyto these feelings.


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(c) Ask questions to clarify any points that you do not understand. Reflectback to the speaker with your understanding of what has been said.

(d) Make sure that there are no outside interruptions and interferences duringthe course of the conversation.

(e) Do not prejudice or value the importance of the message due to yourprevious dealings and experiences with the sender or your perceptions abouthim, positive or negative.

(f) Do not jump to conclusions before the message is over and is clearlyunderstood.

(g) Summarize and restate the message after it is over to doubly make sureabout the content and the intent of the message.Develop writing skills. Clearly written messages can help avoid semantic

and perception barriers. Well-written communication eliminates the possibility ofmisunderstandings and misinterpretations. When writing messages, it is necessaryto be precise thus making the meaning as clear as possible so that it accomplishesthe desired purpose. Robert Degise gives the following suggestions for effectivewritten communication:

(a) Keep words simple. This will reduce your thoughts to essentials and themessage will be easier to understand by the receiver. The message will belost if the words are complex and do not lend to a single meaning.

(b) Do not be bogged down by rules of composition. While the rules ofgrammar and composition must be respected, they should not take priorityover the ultimate purpose of the communication.

(c) Write concisely. Use as few words as possible. Do not be brief at the costof completeness, but express your thoughts, opinions and ideas in the fewestnumber of words possible.

(d) Be specific. Vagueness destroys accuracy that leads to misunderstandingof the meaning or intent of the message. Accordingly, be specific and to thepoint.• Avoid credibility gaps. Communication is a continuing process and

the goal of communication is complete understanding of the message aswell as the creation of trust among all members of the organization.Accordingly, the management must be sincere and should earn the trustof the subordinates. Management should not only be sensitive to theneeds and feelings of workers but also its promises should be supportedby actions. The word of the management should be as good as a bond.Only then would an atmosphere of congeniality accrue, that wouldenhance the communication process. According to studies conductedby J. Luft, openness and an atmosphere of trust builds healthy relationshipand closes credibility gaps, thus contributing to communicationeffectiveness and enhancement.



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5.4 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

These guidelines are designed to help the management improve their skills incommunicating so as not only to avoid any barriers to effective communication butalso to strengthen the basis for optimum results that depend upon the clearunderstanding of the desired communication. These guidelines are partially basedupon the principles proposed by American Management Association. These are:

1. The ideas and messages should be clear, brief and precise. The ideas tobe communicated must be well planned and clearly identified. This willeliminate ambiguity so that the message will not be subject to more than oneinterpretation. The message must be clear, precise and to the point and freefrom distortions and noise. It should also be brief so that it is just necessaryand sufficient and should avoid loose ends or meaningless and unnecessarywords.

2. Sense of timing. The message besides being on time for timely decisionsand actions, the time at which the message is sent and the environmentallocation wherein it is delivered and accepted is also of equal importance. Avital message conveyed at an incorrect time or in an unfavourable atmospheremay not be effective. The environment involves physical setting, i.e., whetherthe communication is conveyed in private, and also it involves the socialclimate which determines the work setting as well as interpersonalrelationships.

3. Integrity. The communication must go through the appropriate mediums inorder to reach the receiver it is intended for. The flow of communicationand its increase should avert bypassing levels or individuals. The omissionor bypassing of these related levels creates internal strife, disbelief, disorderand quarrels. Consequently, the set mediums must be used as needed.

4. Consult with others who are involved in planning the communication.If people have participated in the planning process, they would be highlymotivated to give active support to such communication and carry it through.Also such participation would widen the scope and the objectivity ofcommunication. The people who are concerned must know; exactly whatthey need and when they need the communication. The purpose of thecommunication must be clearly known by all as to what is to be achievedand how.

5. Be prepared to help the receiver. Take the receiver’s interests into account,then the receiver will be more responsive to the communication. Themanagement must clarify any part of the communication that may benecessary and must encourage comments, questions and feedback. Themanagement must always be helpful in carrying out the intended message ofthe communication.


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6. Mode of delivery. Not only the clarity on intent and the content of themessage is important and necessary, but also the method of delivery. Avoidnegative statements like, ‘I am not sure, it will work’, but be confident anddefinitive. The success of the communication also depends upon the tone ofvoice; if the communication is verbal, expressions and emotions exhibited,attentiveness to the receiver etc. The written communication should be politeand unambiguous.

7. Use proper follow-up. Unless it is a one-way communication, which issimply meant to inform, all communications need a follow-up to make surethat it was correctly comprehended and performed. An oral communicationmay require a follow-up through written confirmation. The reply and feedbackto the communication would decide if the action to the communication wasprompt, correct and perfect. Inappropriate or delayed responses shouldbe immediately investigated and corrective measures instituted.

8. Communication should be comprehensive. Communication should becomplete so as not only to meet the demands of today but should also bebased on future needs of the organization as well as individuals. A reasonableprojection and assessment of future needs and environments, both workand social should be incorporated, when planning and executingcommunication.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. Name any three barriers that dilute communication?8. List the guidelines designed to help the management improve their skills in

communicating.9. Mention four different methods of communication in business organizations.10. What is the importance of mass communication?

5.5 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt that:• Communication is the interchange of thoughts and information to bring about

mutual understanding. It is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions andemotions. It involves telling, listening and understanding. The methods ofcommunication are oral or verbal, written, non-verbal, visual and audio-visual. Silence is also a form of communication, and is more often eloquentthan words.

• Non-verbal communication has a universal appeal and takes place throughbody language, gestures and postures, facial expression, etc. Visualcommunication includes pictures, graphs, charts, etc. and is often used as asupplement to other forms of communication. Demonstrations andpresentations are included in this form.



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• Self-development and communication go hand in hand. The greater theeffort made at improving communication skills, the more will you develop inreaching out to people socially and professionally. Good communication isnot a matter of accident or chance. Especially in any business situation, itcalls for planned, organized and coordinated efforts. Several essentialingredients contributing to the success of the communication should bereckoned with. Essentials of effective communications are (i) clarity ofpurpose, (ii) understanding of the process, (iii) addressing the right targetaudience, (iv) requisite communication skills, (v) adequate information, (vi)proper planning, (vii) positive approach, and (viii) sincerity. Effectivecommunication skills call for a thorough understanding of choices availableand an evaluation of their relative merits and demerits. Effectivecommunication also calls for consistency, timeliness, use of appropriate modesand channels, cost consciousness, avoidance of communication overloador extreme feelings and finally, concern for feedback.

• Values and value systems also influence communication, which becomeseffective only when values show congruence. Norms and experience tooimpact communication. People tend to interpret messages in terms of thesefacets. A good communicator develops a clear insight into human behaviourand uses it to advantage. Various barriers hinder the flow of smoothcommunication. They are specific to the method of communication. On apersonal level, a poor power of expression or indifference could be theculprits. Faulty transmission, interfering noise and malfunctioning of gadgetscan hinder communication.

• Communication is a complex interplay of human beings, organizations,markets and various mechanical and electrical devices. Those who masterall the relevant skills operate from a position of distinct strength.

• It is very essential that one is clear about the what, how, when, whom andwhy of the communication. There are general and specific skills relating tocommunication, and an effective communicator acquires an insight into allthe essentials.

• Humour can provide the winning edge in both personal and organizationalcommunication. Used properly, it can relieve tension, create rapport andwork as a motivator. Humour is indeed a powerful management tool.Interpersonal communication refers to face-to-face communication orperson-to-person communication. It involves effective use of both verbalmessages and body language. People with good communication skills areconsidered an asset to any organization. Good leaders make it a point todevelop such skills and use them effectively. An insight into human behaviour,positive mental attitude and maintaining harmonious interpersonal relationshipsare qualities that are rated high by progressive organizations. Transactionalanalysis, developed by Dr Eric Berne, proves very useful in understandingand responding to varied customer and co-worker behaviour. TA divides


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an individual’s personality into three ego states—parent, adult and child. Anunderstanding of these ego states helps in distinguishing words from theirliteral counterparts. TA also refers to four life positions concerning one’sown self as well as others. They are ‘I am OK – you are OK’, ‘I am notOK – you are OK’, ‘I am OK – you are not OK’ and ‘I am not OK – youare not OK.’ According to TA, there can be three types of transactions—complementary, uncomplementary or crossed, and hidden. Complementarytransactions take place when the conversation proceeds smoothly, withexpected responses emanating. People in business and organizations, whoare required to deal with different classes of people on a regular basis,would find the study of TA quite rewarding.

• Intrapersonal communication enables people to communicate withthemselves. It is an inward-looking process that helps one to think, planand interpret messages, and pursue a mature approach.

• Understanding the audience psychology and building self-confidence areother skills that help in making communication effective. Both can beachieved through conscious efforts.

• Reading skills result in learning and preparedness. Great achievers are knownto acquire considerably fast reading skills as compared to an averageperson. Good reading also involves choosing what to read, and allocatingappropriate time on merit. Study and practice over prolonged periods, helpin perfecting one’s style of communication and making communication—oral, written or non-verbal—impactful.

• Business communication takes place to further the goals of business. Ittakes place at different levels and in varying directions. The methods ofcorporate communication can be oral, written, non-verbal, visual and audio-visual. Internal communication occurs between employers and employeesor among different groups of employees. External communication createsthe image of the organization and, therefore, great care has to be taken toensure that it achieves its purpose. Upward communication moves frombottom to top, there being several tiers in the corporate structure. Downwardcommunication travels downwards from the CEO to senior executives, andthen to junior-level employees. Formal communication involves meetings,conferences, etc. and follows a hierarchical pattern and periodicity. Informalcommunication is unstructured and takes place through chats and informaltalks. Lateral communication is conducted among equals or peers. Interactivecommunication implies a two-way process through meetings, conferences,conference calls, etc. Mass communication is self-evident, in that it reachesout to the masses through newspapers, TV, radio, etc. Grapevine usuallycomprises gossip and rumours.



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5.6 KEY TERMS

• Communication: An interchange of thoughts and information to bring aboutmutual understanding.

• Oral communication: Communication that takes place through meetings,speeches, discussions, etc., with the help of microphones, telephones, radioand other such media.

• Written communication: Communication that takes place through letters,memos, notes, circulars, etc., with the use of computers, word processors,telex, fax, etc.

• Non-verbal communication: Communication that takes place throughbody language, gestures and postures, facial expression, etc.

• Visual communication: Communication that takes place through pictures,charts, graphs, etc. and is often used as a supplement to other forms ofcommunication.

• Transactional analysis: Transactional analysis divides an individual’spersonality into three ego states, namely, parent state, adult state and childstate.The ego states are helpful in distinguishing the words from their literalcounterparts.

• Intrapersonal communication : A method of communication that helpsevery person to communicate with himself or herself. It helps in clarifyingwhat is known as the self-concept and is basically an introspective exercise.

• Formal communication: Formal systems that organizations develop toensure communication on an on-going basis.

• Informal communication: Communication that takes place in anunstructured manner and is outside the formal forums.

• Grapevine: Informal communication that prevail in organizations andbusinesses. It spreads by way of gossip and rumors, travels through informalnetworks and quite often travels faster than the formal messages.

• Barriers: Those factors that hinder or dilute the flow of communication.

5.7 ANSWERS TO ‘CHECK YOUR PROGRESS’

1. The essentials of effective communication are clarity of purpose,understanding of the process, addressing the right target audience, requisitecommunication skills, adequate information, proper planning, positiveapproach and sincerity.

2. Interpersonal communication is face-to-face or person-to-personcommunication while intrapersonal communication refers to communicationwithin the self, involving the process of thinking and feeling.


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3. The types of transactions in transaction analysis are games people play andcommunication and life positions.

4. The various kinds of communication in an organization are internalcommunication, external communication, upward communication, downwardcommunication, formal communication, informal communication, lateralcommunication, interactive communication, mass communication andgrapevine.

5. Horizontal flow of information that takes place among equals and at peerlevel is known as lateral communication.

6. Grapevine is the kind of informal communication that prevails in organizatonand businesses and may be more powerful and receptive than formalcommunication.

7. Any three barriers that dilute communication are poor expression, faultytransmissions and indifference and lack of interest.

8. The guidelines designed to help the management improve their skills incommunicating are as follows:

• The ideas and messages should be clear, brief and precise• Sense of timing• Integrity• Consult with others who are involved in planning the communication• Be prepared to help the receiver• Mode of delivery• Use proper follow-up

9. The four different methods of communication in business organization are :(a) Formal communication(b) Informal communication(c) Lateral communication(d) Upward communication

10. The importance of mass communication is that it reaches out to huge numbersthrough newspapers, TV, radio, etc. It is the best way to convey a message,current events or opinions.

5.8 QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions

1. What is interpersonal communication?2. How does leadership affect communication skills?3. Explain intrapersonal communication.4. List the skills relevant to oral communication.



NOTES

5. Why is humour considered as a powerful management tool?6. What is upward communication?7. What is downward communication? List any four typical examples of it.8. List some examples of external communication.9. How does informal communication occur?

Long-Answer Questions

1. Elaborate various steps involved in mastering communication skills.2. Which are the specific skills relevant to (a) oral communication and (b)

written communication?3. What is the role of humour in communication? Do you agree that it can be

a powerful management tool?4. People with good interpersonal skills are an asset to any organization.

Elucidate.5. Explain why effective communication skills are relevant for good leadership.6. What is transactional analysis? How is it relevant in dealing with people and

situations?7. Write short notes on (a) understanding audience psychology and (b) building

self-confidence.8. List out any four barriers to communication and elaborate on how they can

be overcome.9. What are the various types of communication that are relevant to a large

multi-office service sector organization?10. Differentiate between upward communication and downward

communication.11. Discuss the importance of memos, circulars, instructions, guidelines,

agreements and reports in formal communication.12. Prove that interactive communication is a two-way process.13. Define the role of ‘grapevine communication’ in an organization.

5.9 FURTHER READING

Chandan, J.S. Management Theory & Practice. Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd., 2007.Ewald, H.R. and R.E. Burnett. Business Communication. Prentice Hall, 1997.Lesikar, R.V., John D. Pettit and M.E. Flately, Lesikar’s Basic BusinessCommunication. Mc Graw-Hill College, 1999.

Documents

Communication: UNIT 5 COMMUNICATION: Concepts … 5 COMMUNICATION: CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES ... memos, notes, circulars, ... any such act which the party notices and,